Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The army of Israel was primarily a volunteer military force directed by God and his word. Deuteronomy 20 establishes the guidelines for warfare, Num. 1 describes organization, and Num. 2:17 highlights God’s strategic position as commander in the sacred event of war. Israelite warriors were men twenty years and older from the nation’s tribes, clans, and families. The Levites were appointed tabernacle caretakers and not counted in the census for military duties. The priest was responsible for addressing the nation prior to a battle and then leading the battle procession in connection with the ark of the covenant.

The Israelite army structure is not overly developed in the biblical material. Under God as commander in chief was the king, who then worked in connection with his commanders and officers to execute God’s will by means of a tribal confederation. Prior to the monarchy, God worked through Moses and Joshua to rally the men for battle. Samuel warned the nation that the king would abuse the volunteerism of the army and take their sons and make them render military service with his chariots and horses (1Sam. 8:1112). This warning was realized under the leadership of Solomon and Rehoboam. Army divisions included a list of family heads, commanders of thousands, commanders of hundreds, and their officers. In addition, a period of their service was noted (1Chron. 27).

Army size was not a matter of importance for success in battle. God as divine warrior led the nation in battle and determined the outcome in keeping with his sovereign purposes. Only a few Israelites were necessary to defeat thousands (Lev. 26:8; Deut. 32:8). The defeat of Pharaoh and his army in the exodus and the conquest provides the most dramatic premonarchy illustrations of God’s defiance of the numbers. During the monarchy, God orchestrated the defeat of the vast Aramean army with a smaller Israelite army (1Kings 20:27). On the other hand, when the Israelites were disobedient to the covenant, they would be put to flight (Josh. 7).

Between the protected hill country of Judah and the open coastal plain lies a range of low rolling hills cut through by significant valleys. Toward the western end of the Elah Valley, Azekah stands guard. Because of its strategic location, it played an important role in critical conflicts between Israel and its enemies.

As Joshua and the Israelites routed the Jerusalem confederation (Josh. 10), the enemies of Israel fled westward from the central Benjamin plateau, through the Aijalon Valley, and south beyond Azekah. Some centuries later, the major threat to Israel was the Philistine presence on the coast. The Philistines sought to expand their control into the hill country and camped on the south side of the Elah Valley between Sokoh and Azekah; the Israelites were on the opposite side of the valley. David challenged and killed the Philistine champion, Goliath, and the Philistines fled west past Azekah toward Ekron, one of their own cities (1Sam. 17).

After Solomon’s death, Rehoboam fortified a ring of cities to protect the southern kingdom. Among them was Azekah (2 Chron. 11:512), southwest of Jerusalem. At the end of the Judean monarchy, the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem and the other cities that were still holding out. Lachish and Azekah were the only fortified cities left in Judah (Jer. 34:6–7). A poignant letter discovered in the gate area of Lachish reads, “We were watching for the smoke signals of Lachish ... because we do not see Azekah” (Lachish Letter 4).

The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah).

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:1619). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2Sam. 23:14–17; 2Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2Chron. 11:6).

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42).

The OT employs thirty-five different words for birds (both wild and domestic), but the identification of these words with known species has proved to be very difficult. Like other words for animals, terminology for birds often is employed in personal names (e.g., Jonah, Oreb, Zippor, Zipporah). There is significant evidence for fowling practices in ancient Israel, usually by means of nets and snares (Pss. 124:7; 140:5; Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Lam. 3:52; Hos. 7:12; Amos 3:5). Small birds and chickens are occasionally even depicted on Iron AgeII (1000586 BC) seals and vessels from sites such as el-Jib (Gibeon) and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah).

Like other animals in the Bible, birds are depicted as agents of God. Divine agency is especially evident in instances such as the ravens feeding Elijah (1Kings 17:4–6) and the dove bringing an olive leaf to Noah (Gen. 8:11). The Bible also employs bird-related imagery such as in descriptions of divine judgment (Prov. 30:17; Jer. 12:9). Birds may also serve as ominous signs of impending judgment (Hos. 8:1). God’s “wings” can offer both healing (Mal. 4:2 KJV, RSV) and protection (Ruth 2:12; Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:4). The metaphor of the soul or spirit as a bird is referenced in the description of the Holy Spirit descending like a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32). The observation that birds “do not sow or reap” is employed as an image of worry-free living (Luke 12:24; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9). Jesus’ reference to “when the rooster crows” (Mark 13:35) is not strictly literal but rather refers to a watch of the night: the quarter of the night after midnight.

The prominence of sacrificial birds (especially doves and pigeons) in ritual literature indicates that they were likely raised for such purposes in ancient Israel. All birds could be eaten except those listed as unclean in Lev. 11:13–19 (twenty species) and Deut. 14:12–18 (twenty-one species). Generally speaking, birds of prey and those that feed on carrion or fish were considered unclean. Birds often served as food for the poor (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7). Poor people could offer birds as a substitute for expensive livestock (Lev. 5:7; 12:8; 14:21–22; cf. Luke 2:24), while the poorest of the poor were permitted to bring grain (Lev. 5:11). Finally, in one purgation ritual a live bird is used to carry away impurities (Lev. 14:52–53; cf. 16:22).

Generally made of grain, this staple of foods has been known to be in existence since prehistoric days, being mentioned in the oldest literatures of humanity. Though usually made of wheat, it can be made of any grain and also some kinds of beans or lentils.

To make bread, grain must be ground into flour, mixed with salt and water, kneaded into a dough, and baked. Most breads included a leaven to add substance. As a food staple, it became a symbol of hospitality (Neh. 13:12; Matt. 14:15–21) and community as people ate together (Acts 2:42). Bread was considered a gift from God, so it was treated with special deference. Unleavened bread was required during Passover feasts and in most occasions related to the worship of God. The “bread of the Presence” (KJV: “shewbread”), representing the twelve tribes of Israel in the temple, was made of unleavened bread (Exod. 25:30) with special flour and was carefully eaten by the priests.

Jesus used bread in the Lord’s Prayer to represent asking God to meet our basic needs (Matt. 5:11), and he called himself the “bread of life” to show that he is the one who “gives life to the world,” our ultimate sustenance (John 6:33–35). During this exchange with the Jews about the bread of life, Jesus foreshadows what takes place at the Last Supper with his disciples, suggesting that believers must “eat [his] flesh” (represented by bread) and “drink [his] blood” (represented by wine) (John 6:53–59; cf. Luke 22:19). Additionally, bread was used symbolically to represent those things that were present in daily life (Pss. 127:2; 80:5; Prov. 4:17; 20:17).

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals.

Copper. References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.

Bronze. The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:1011, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).

Iron and steel. One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).

Tin. Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead. Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Gold and silver. Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.

Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.

Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

Precious stones. Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

Temporary homes for seminomadic peoples as well as military personnel.

After the exodus and during the wilderness journeys, the Israelites resided in this type of settlement (Exod. 14:2, 9; Num. 33; Deut. 2:1415). Moses led the Israelites out of the camp to meet with God at Sinai (Exod. 19:16–17).

Each tribe had its own camp (Num. 2). Because of the presence of God in its midst, Israel’s camp was to be holy. Leviticus and Deuteronomy contain laws regulating camp life (Lev. 14:3, 8; Deut. 23:10–11). Any unclean person or thing was to be put outside the encampment (Num. 5:1–4; Deut. 23:14). The angel of the Lord encamped around them (Ps. 34:7). The Israelite army encamped at numerous places during the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 4:19) and the monarchical period (1Sam. 29:1).

The NT uses the Greek term parembolē to refer to the Israelite camp where animals sacrificed as sin offerings were “burned outside the camp” (Heb. 13:11–13). Since Jesus suffered outside the gate as a sacrifice for us, believers are called to join him outside the camp, “bearing the disgrace he bore.” Revelation 20:9 speaks of “the camp of God’s people.”

The second king of Israel (r. 1010970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).

Eventually Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).

Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (2Sam. 5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).

The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).

David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.

David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.

Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).

David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.

A broad designation for certain regions in Israel, typically rocky, although also plains, with little rainfall. These areas generally are uninhabited, and most often “wilderness” refers to specific regions surrounding inhabited Israel. A fair amount of Scripture’s focus with respect to the wilderness concerns Israel’s forty-year period of wandering in the wilderness after the exodus (see also Wilderness Wandering).

More specifically, the geographical locations designated “wilderness” fall into four basic categories: the Negev (south), Transjordan (east), Judean (eastern slope of Judean mountains), and Sinai (southwest).

The Negev makes up a fair amount of Israel’s southern kingdom, Judah. It is very rocky and also includes plateaus and wadis, which are dry riverbeds that can bloom after rains. Its most important city is Beersheba (see Gen. 21:14, 22 34), which often designates Israel’s southernmost border, as in the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (e.g., 2Sam. 17:11).

Transjordan pertains to the area east of the Jordan River, the area through which the Israelites had to pass before crossing the Jordan on their way from Mount Sinai to Canaan. (Israel was denied direct passage to Canaan by the Edomites and Amorites [see Num. 20:14–21; 21:21–26].) Even though this region lay outside the promised land of Canaan, it was settled by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh after they had fulfilled God’s command to fight alongside the other tribes in conquering Canaan (Num. 32:1–42; Josh. 13:8; 22:1–34).

The Judean Desert is located on the eastern slopes of the Judean mountains, toward the Dead Sea. David fled there for refuge from Saul (1Sam. 21–23). It was also in this area that Jesus was tempted (Luke 4:1–13).

The Sinai Desert is a large peninsula, with the modern-day Gulf of Suez to the west and the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. In the ancient Near Eastern world, both bodies of water often were referred to as the “Red Sea,” which is the larger sea to the south. In addition to the region traditionally believed to contain the location of Mount Sinai (its exact location is unknown), the Sinai Desert is further subdivided into other areas known to readers of the OT: Desert of Zin (northeast, contains Kadesh Barnea), Desert of Shur (northwest, near Egypt), Desert of Paran (central).

Wilderness is commonly mentioned in the Bible, and although it certainly can have neutral connotations (i.e., simply describing a location), the uninhabited places often entail both positive (e.g., as a place of solitude) and negative (e.g., as a place of wrath) connotations, both in their actual geological properties and as metaphors. The very rugged and uninhabited nature of the wilderness easily lent itself to being a place of death (e.g., Deut. 8:15; Ps. 107:4–5; Jer. 2:6). It was also a place associated with Israel’s rebellions and struggles with other nations. Upon leaving Egypt, Israel spent forty years wandering the wilderness before entering Canaan, encountering numerous military conflicts along the way. This forty-year period was occasioned by a mass rebellion (Num. 14), hence casting a necessarily dark cloud over that entire period, and no doubt firming up subsequent negative connotations of “wilderness.” Similarly, “wilderness” connotes notions of exile from Israel, as seen in the ritual of the scapegoat (lit., “goat of removal” [see Lev. 16]). On the Day of Atonement, one goat was sacrificed to atone for the people’s sin, and another was sent off, likewise to atone for sin. The scapegoat was released into the desert, where it would encounter certain death, either by succumbing to the climate or through wild animals.

On the other hand, it is precisely in this uninhabited land that God also showed his faithfulness to his people, despite their prolonged punishment. He miraculously supplied bread (manna) and meat (quail) (Exod. 16; Num. 11), as well as water (Exod. 15:22–27; 17:1–7; Num. 20:1–13; 21:16–20). God’s care for Israel is amply summarized in Deut. 1:30–31: “The Lord your God, who is going before you, will fight for you, as he did for you in Egypt, before your very eyes, and in the wilderness. There you saw how the Lord your God carried you, as a father carries his son, all the way you went until you reached this place.”

The harsh realities of the wilderness also made it an ideal place to seek sanctuary and protection. David fled from Saul to the wilderness, the Desert of Ziph (1Sam. 23:14; 26:2–3; cf. Ps. 55:7). Similarly, Jeremiah sought a retreat in the desert from sinful Israel (Jer. 9:2).

Related somewhat to this last point is Jesus’ own attitude toward the wilderness. It was there that he retreated when he could no longer move about publicly (John 11:54). John the Baptist came from the wilderness announcing Jesus’ ministry (Matt. 3:1–3; Mark 1:2–4; Luke 3:2–6; John 1:23; cf. Isa. 40:3–5). It was also in the desert that Jesus went to be tempted but also overcame that temptation.

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, listed as part of the territory of Judah but not taken by Israel at the time of the distribution of the land to tribes (Josh. 13:3; 15:11, 4546; Judg. 1:18), though it bordered Dan (Josh. 19:43).

Upon the defeat of Hophni and Phinehas, the ark of the covenant was taken to the temple of Dagon in Ashdod. After God demonstrated his displeasure, the Philistines sent the ark to Ekron, where God greatly afflicted the people until they sent it back to Israel (1Sam. 5).

Ekron served as the entry point from Israel to Philistia, as witnesses the account of the pursuit of the Philistine army to the “gates of Ekron” (1Sam. 17:52) after David defeated Goliath.

In 2Kings 1, King Ahaziah is accused of worshiping Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron. The prophets pronounced oracles announcing the destruction of this city (Jer. 25:20; Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5, 7).

The metrological systems employed in biblical times span the same concepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, and volume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurements employed during the span of biblical times were not nearly as accurate or uniform as the modern units employed today.

Weights

Weights in biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into various animal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom was inscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement. Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significant amounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatly complicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka. Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahs or ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measure metals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah. 1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20 shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Mina. Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50 shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver (Neh. 7:71 72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefined the proper weight: “The shekel is to consist of twenty gerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekels equal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, there were arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of the servants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servants varying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying a monetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver or gold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’ wages for a laborer.

Pim. Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3 shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel. Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent to approximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weight measurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight varied significantly at different historical points. Examples include the “royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “common shekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,” which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, the shekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent. Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately 60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod. 25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings 20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably is derived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Litra. Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight. Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to the modern British pound.

Linear Measurements

Linear measurements were based upon readily available natural measurements such as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between the thumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method of measurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit. Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6 handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, as the shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance from the elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height, width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen. 7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximate conversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half for meters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1 cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’s journey. An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25 miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a single or multiple days’ journey as a description of the distance traveled or the distance between two points: “a day’s journey” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-day journey” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “seven days” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2). After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyed for a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth. The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately ¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was the beginning building block of the biblical metrological system for linear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describe the bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth. Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1⁄6 cubit, or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the four fingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’s brief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table (Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings 7:26).

Milion. Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration of Roman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia. Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as “fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably the distance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measure the depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod. Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a general term for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance (Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbath day’s journey. Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About 2,000 cubits.

Stadion. Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai. Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

Span. Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to three handbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretched thumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Land Area

Seed. The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis of how much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings 18:32).

Yoke. Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. In biblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animals could plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab. Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer. Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria (2Kings 6:25).

Choinix. Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement, mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to the homer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquid volume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra 45:14).

Ephah. Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters). Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flour and grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day of reduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce only an ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to the bath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to 1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of various grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos. 3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkey can carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed a direct link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16: “fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” A logical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalences might look something like this:

1 homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1omer = 1 beka

Koros. Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measure of grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer. Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10 ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in the measurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod. 16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s daily food ration.

Saton. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. The measurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah, or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various dry goods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

Liquid Volume

Bath. Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, which typically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in the measurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11), and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos. Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew word bath (see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin. Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to 1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek. 4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log. Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72 bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture, specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes. Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement of water at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

The first child born to a married couple. In the OT it most commonly refers to the first male child, upon whom special privileges were bestowed. The OT describes some of the privileges associated with being the firstborn son: he would receive a double portion of the inheritance (a privilege codified in the law in Deut. 21:17), the paternal blessing (Gen. 27; 48:1719), and other examples of favoritism (e.g., Gen. 43:33). The importance ascribed to the firstborn is also attested in the legislative requirement that the firstborn—people, animals, and produce—belong to Yahweh (Lev. 27:26; Deut. 15:19; and of people, note Num. 3:12–13), so stressing his primacy over Israel.

“Firstborn” language is also used figuratively in the OT. It is used of Israel as Yahweh’s firstborn in Exod. 4:22–23, wherein Pharaoh’s failure to release Yahweh’s firstborn results in the destruction of Egypt’s firstborn. God also declares the Davidic king to be his firstborn son in Ps. 89:27, highlighting the special favor that he would enjoy. “Firstborn” language can also be used figuratively to describe anything that receives a greater share, such as “the firstborn of Death” in Job 18:13 (NRSV) and “the firstborn of the poor” in Isa. 14:30 (NRSV).

Somewhat surprisingly, God does not adhere to the significance of primogeniture, frequently bestowing his favor on those who were not firstborn: Abel over Cain, Isaac over Ishmael, Jacob over Esau, Joseph and Judah over Reuben, Ephraim over Manasseh, Moses over Aaron, David over his brothers, and Solomon over Adonijah.

The NT presupposes an understanding of the significance of the firstborn. Jesus is specifically identified as Mary’s firstborn (Luke 2:7, 23). However, the description extends beyond mere notions of human primogeniture when Jesus is described as “firstborn over all creation” (Col. 1:15) and “firstborn from among the dead” (Col. 1:18; cf. Rev. 1:5). These expressions, in line with figurative use of “firstborn” language in the OT, express Jesus’ privileged place in both creation and the new creation.

One of the five major cities of the Philistines, each of which was ruled by its own lord (Josh. 13:3). Gath was situated close to the border of Judah. Since the Hebrew word gat means “winepress” and occurs in the names of several places (e.g., Gath Rimmon, Gath Hepher, Moresheth Gath), there may have been other towns of this name. Some of the biblical references (e.g., 1Chron. 7:21; 8:13) may not be to Philistine Gath.

At the time of the conquest, Gath (mentioned in the Amarna letters of the fourteenth century BC) was inhabited by the formidable Anakites, whom Joshua failed to dislodge (Josh. 11:2122; see also Deut. 1:28; 9:2), and in David’s day it still boasted warriors of great height and strength (2Sam. 21:19–22; 1Chron. 20:5–8). However, it was also one of the cities that God afflicted with tumors when the captured ark of the covenant was stored there (1Sam. 5:8–9; 6:17), and the mighty Goliath of Gath was no match for God’s anointed (1Sam. 17:8–58).

On two occasions David fled from Saul to Achish, king of Gath. The first time, he was so scared of Achish that he feigned insanity and escaped as soon as he could (1Sam. 21:10–22:1; cf. the superscription to Ps. 56). The second time, he settled down with six hundred men and their families to deceive Achish in a different way: he used Gath as a base to attack Israel’s other enemies (1Sam. 27:1–30:31), all the while claiming that he was wreaking revenge on Saul. When Achish himself defeated Saul and Jonathan, David was horrified by the thought that the town of Gath would hear of their deaths and gloat (2Sam. 1:20). His horror is poetically echoed in Micah’s eighth-century BC lament over a doomed Judah (Mic. 1:10).

David seems nevertheless to have made friends as well as enemies in Gath. Obed-Edom the Gittite was blessed rather than cursed when the ark was kept at his house before its final journey to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6:10–11; 1Chron. 13:3). After David had conquered Gath (1Chron. 18:1), the six hundred Gittite mercenaries in his army were among his most loyal followers (2Sam. 15:18–22).

Gath seems to have changed hands fairly frequently thereafter. We know that Achish ruled it in Solomon’s day, when Shimei retrieved his runaway slaves from there (1Kings 2:39–46), and that it was again in Philistine hands when Uzziah broke down its walls (2Chron. 26:6). In between, however, we are told that Rehoboam of Judah fortified it (2Chron. 11:8), and that in Joash’s reign Hazael of Aram conquered it (2Kings 12:17). The fact that Amos mentions Gath as “in Philistia” (Amos 6:2) but does not group it with the other four cities of the Philistines (1:6–8) may mean that it was under Israelite control at the time. Assyrian records from the eighth century BC describe several campaigns against rebellious Philistine cities, including the city of Gath (Annals of Sargon II).

Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.

Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.

Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.

The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).

It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.

Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.

The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:115; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

A title of Jesus used in the Gospel of John, the Letters of John, and the book of Revelation.

The phrase first appears in John 1:29, where John recognizes Jesus as the one “who takes away the sin of the world,” and then again in John 1:36, when John’s outcry causes two of his disciples to become the first followers of Jesus.

The main reference is to the Passover feast, during which John places the passion narrative, at which a lamb is slaughtered and eaten. This is a celebration and an echo of the original Passover, in which the Hebrew people smeared lamb’s blood on the frames of their doors so that the judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn would not strike the Hebrews (Exod. 12:115). The salvation that John envisions, however, is different from the exodus narrative in many respects. The enemy from which God’s people are saved is no longer a geopolitical oppressor but rather sin itself. Israel has now been expanded to contain the entire human race. The “lamb” has undergone quite a transformation and is now to be identified with the Messiah and even God himself. For NT believers, Jesus’ death and resurrection are a completion of the Passover. Rather than saving one people from one specific danger, God’s salvation reaches universal efficacy in Jesus Christ, taking away the sin of the world.

The other figure that feeds meaning into “Lamb of God” is the Suffering Servant of Isa. 53. Isaiah says, “He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth” (53:7). John perhaps means to fulfill this verse specifically in John 19:9. Lambs were also a part of the cultic worship of Israel and were acceptable for more than one offering (e.g., Lev. 3:7; 4:32; 5:6).

The Philistines inhabited the southern coastal plain of Palestine as early as the time of Abraham (Gen. 21:32, 34; 26:1, 8, 1415, 18) and of Moses (Exod. 13:17; 15:14; 23:31), and as late as the exilic (Ezek. 16:27, 57; 25:15–16) and postexilic (Zech. 9:6) periods.

The mention of Philistines in Gen. 21 and 26 refers either to early inhabitants of the territory that later would be inhabited by Philistines or to peoples who later would become part of the Philistine nation. The Philistines mentioned in the Bible may constitute diverse peoples who migrated by land or by sea to the southern coastal region of Palestine over several centuries.

Prior to the influx of at least some of the Philistines from eastern Mediterranean islands, the southern coastal region was, at various times, inhabited by Canaanites (Num. 13:29; Deut. 1:7; Josh. 5:1; cf. Josh. 13:4); Anakites, who fled to Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod after being defeated by Joshua (Josh. 11:21–22); and Avvites, who were replaced by the victorious Caphtorites (Deut. 2:23; Josh. 13:3).

The migration of Judah and other tribes of Israel into Canaan resulted in several centuries of hostility with the Philistines. Judah’s allotment of land included the cities and surrounding areas of Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza, as well as “the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea” (Josh. 15:45–47). The soldiers of Judah subsequently conquered at least part of this area (Judg. 1:18).

During the time of the judges, Shamgar “struck down six hundred Philistines with an oxgoad” (Judg. 3:31). Samson burned the grain, vineyards, and olive groves of the Philistines when he fastened torches to the tails of foxes (15:4–5). He killed a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of a donkey (15:15) and, after they had gouged out his eyes, killed many Philistine leaders when he pushed over the pillars supporting one of their temples (16:21, 29–30).

In one of their many victories over Israel (cf. Judg. 10:7; 13:1; 15:11; 1Sam. 4:2, 10; 12:9), the Philistines captured the ark of God and placed it in the temple of Dagon in Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:1). The next day the god was found lying on his face before the ark of God.

Saul’s reign as Israel’s king was characterized by war with the Philistines (1Sam. 9:16; 14:52; cf. 7:13) and included both defeat (13:6–7; 23:27; 31:1) and victory (14:13, 22, 31, 47; 17:52–53; 24:1).

The military dominance of the Philistines over Israel during the time of Saul is attributed to their control of blacksmithing and ironwork (1Sam. 13:19–22). This superiority in weapons allowed the Philistines to extend their influence beyond the region of the five cities into Judean territory (1Sam. 4:1; 7:7; 10:5; 13:3, 16–18, 23; 17:1; 29:1, 11; 31:7–8, 10; 2Sam. 5:18, 22; 23:14).

Saul became jealous of David after his defeat of the Philistine champion Goliath (1Sam. 17:4, 50; 18:7–9). To win the hand of Saul’s daughter Michal, David and his men killed two hundred Philistines and presented their foreskins to Saul (18:27). When Saul later attempted to kill David, David sought refuge with the Philistines and lived with them for sixteen months (27:1, 7).

When the Philistines gathered to fight against Israel, David’s host, Achish, invited him to participate in the battle against his enemy Saul (1Sam. 28:1). David was spared the dilemma of fighting against his own people when, fearing his betrayal, the other Philistine rulers refused to let David accompany them (29:4). In the ensuing battle between Israel and the Philistines, Saul’s sons were killed, and Saul took his own life after being critically injured by a Philistine archer (31:2–4).

David’s early success in battle against the Philistines (1Sam. 17:50; 19:8; 23:5) continued upon his accession to kingship after the death of Saul (2Sam. 5:20, 25; 8:1, 12), though in his old age David was too tired to fight well against the Philistines (2Sam. 21:15).

Later battles between Judah and the Philistines took place during the reigns of Jehoram (2Chron. 21:16–17), Uzziah (2Chron. 26:6–7), Ahaz (2Chron. 28:18), and Hezekiah (2Kings 18:8). Jehoshaphat received tribute from the Philistines (2Chron. 17:11).

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. In ancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The ground in Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a useful item (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks were customized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besides their utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote an office and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffs that indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predicts that the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah. Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimes a staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It was symbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimes symbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs are associated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’s staff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and the Israelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield as long as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’s Rod.

(1)The first king of Israel (1Sam. 9:12Sam. 1:27; 1Chron. 9:35–10:14). Out of fear of their enemy the Philistines as well as displeasure over Samuel’s wicked sons, the people of Israel asked Samuel for a king like all the other nations had (1Sam. 8). Though God and Samuel both expressed displeasure with the people’s request, God directed Samuel to anoint Saul as king. Saul’s initial reluctance to make his role public and also his hesitation to immediately confront the Philistines are not a sign of humility, but rather are an early example of the kind of disobedience to God and his prophet Samuel that eventually would bring God’s great anger against him.

Saul’s first significant failure, however, occurred before a battle with the Philistines, while he and his army were camped at Gilgal (1Sam. 13). Before initiating battle, it was necessary to offer sacrifices. Samuel the priest, however, was late in arriving. Saul grew nervous because his troops were deserting, so he sacrificed the animals. When Samuel arrived, he confronted Saul. After all, with God on one’s side, large numbers of troops were unnecessary. Saul thus displayed a lack of confidence in God by his actions. For this, Samuel announced that he would not found a dynasty of kings (13:13–14).

Soon thereafter, Saul showed his disobedience in another important aspect of war. Upon victory, the king should immediately offer all the plunder to God. In addition, if the enemy came from within the land, all the captives were to be put to death (see Holy War). However, after defeating the hated Amalekites (cf. Exod. 17:8–16; Deut. 25:17–19), Saul kept the sheep and did not personally execute King Agag, their leader (1Sam. 15). For this, Samuel announced God’s decision to remove him from the kingship and anoint another king (15:26).

At this time, Samuel anointed David, but David did not immediately become king (1Sam. 16:1–13). For a period of time, David entered into Saul’s service (16:14–23). It was never David’s intention to forcibly remove Saul from the throne (1Sam. 24; 26), but Saul grew intensely jealous of this popular young man. Indeed, Saul was a man deeply plagued by mental problems, perhaps depression and paranoia, even before the conflict with David. His jealousy also brought him into conflict with his own brave son, Jonathan, who had a deep friendship with David. Saul ejected David from the court and then spent much of his energy trying to track him down and kill him. He was, however, unsuccessful.

Eventually, God abandoned Saul. He was defeated and killed by the Philistines in the battle of Mount Gilboa (1Sam. 31), and David mourned his death and the death of his friend Jonathan (2Sam. 1).

(2)Another name for the apostle Paul (see Paul).

“Salvation” is the broadest term used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis through Revelation.

In many places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility of retribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, I pray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). The actions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:57; 47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss. 17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).

Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).

But these examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritual component as well. God did not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa. 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant would once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

As in the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescued from physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being saved from various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor. 1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fierce storm, Jesus’ disciples cry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” (Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road (Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke 8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō. The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins.

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats for meat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integral part of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected in biblical portrayals of Abel (Gen. 4:2), Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 16:11), and Jesus (Luke 2:820; John 10:11, 14).

A shepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gen. 30:37–43). Sons (Gen. 37:2), daughters (Gen. 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gen. 13:7; 1Sam. 25:7; Luke 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculture developed and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized (note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended the sheep [1Sam. 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gen. 46:34). Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to and from nearby arable land (Gen. 29:7–14). Once all the grazing land had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland far enough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live a seminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water were needed (Gen. 37:12; cf. Isa. 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshift enclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a cave and remained with the flock throughout the night (Gen. 31:40; Song 1:8; Luke 2:8)

The vital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturally led to the metaphorical use of the term to refer to both civil authorities (Num. 27:17; 1Kings 22:17; Isa. 44:28; Ezek. 34:1–19) and deity (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Pss. 23:1; 78:52), both in Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Exod. 15:13, 17; Ps. 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile (Ps. 44:11–23; Jer. 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayed in pastoral terms as Yahweh shepherding his people to safe pasture. In the NT, Jesus called himself the “good shepherd” (John 10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders who are to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection of God’s people (Acts 20:28; 1Pet. 5:1–3).

Rocks and stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12; Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as a sign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a marker or memorial (Gen. 31:4650), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). A single rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen. 28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also be used to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb, such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus (Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stone was used as a construction material, particularly for the temple (1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15; Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundation and for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26; Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22 refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becoming the cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf. Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh. 8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf. 2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai the Israelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed” stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). The phrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, since stone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf. Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); the term “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to an idol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stones were used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown by hand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam. 17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone” refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typically functioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29; Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts 7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd (Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

The phrases “precious stones” and “costly stones” refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor. 3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings 10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and for decoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones on the high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on his breastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12, 17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of precious stones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocks and stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as a rock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common (1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12), hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless (Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone” describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumbling stone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble (Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faith in Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

Divine titles using “almighty” indicate God’ssupreme, incomparable power. God is named “the Almighty”(shadday) throughout the OT, most frequently in Job. “GodAlmighty” (’el shadday) is concentrated in theGenesis patriarchal narratives (see also Exod. 6:3; Ezek. 10:5).

Inthe majority of its occurrences in the NIV, “Almighty”renders tsebaot (lit., “armies” [KJV, NRSV, NASB:“hosts”). Across the OT, “the Lord Almighty”connotes overwhelming forces, earthly and heavenly, under command ofIsrael’s divine warrior (1 Sam. 17:45; Judg. 5:20).Especially frequent in Jeremiah, Isaiah, Amos, Zechariah, andMalachi, it bolsters the prophetic message by leveraging God’sawesome power and authority (cf. James 5:4). Appropriately, the NTbook of Revelation marshals these concepts and repeatedly refers toGod as “almighty” (  pantokratōr).

The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).

Arms

Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).

Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).

Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.

Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).

Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)

Armor

Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).

Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).

The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).

Arms

Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).

Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).

Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.

Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).

Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)

Armor

Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).

Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Between the protected hill country of Judah and the opencoastal plain lies a range of low rolling hills cut through bysignificant valleys. Toward the western end of the Elah Valley,Azekah stands guard. Because of its strategic location, it played animportant role in critical conflicts between Israel and its enemies.

AsJoshua and the Israelites routed the Jerusalem confederation (Josh.10), the enemies of Israel fled westward from the central Benjaminplateau, through the Aijalon Valley, and south beyond Azekah. Somecenturies later, the major threat to Israel was the Philistinepresence on the coast. The Philistines sought to expand their controlinto the hill country and camped on the south side of the Elah Valleybetween Sokoh and Azekah; the Israelites were on the opposite side ofthe valley. David challenged and killed the Philistine champion,Goliath, and the Philistines fled west past Azekah toward Ekron, oneof their own cities (1 Sam. 17).

AfterSolomon’s death, Rehoboam fortified a ring of cities to protectthe southern kingdom. Among them was Azekah (2 Chron. 11:5–12),southwest of Jerusalem. At the end of the Judean monarchy, theBabylonians attacked Jerusalem and the other cities that were stillholding out. Lachish and Azekah were the only fortified cities leftin Judah (Jer. 34:6–7). A poignant letter discovered in thegate area of Lachish reads, “We were watching for the smokesignals of Lachish . . . because we do not see Azekah”(Lachish letter 4).

Theinheritance of the tribe of Judah included Azekah among nearly fortyother towns in the Shephelah region (Josh. 15:33–44). Thesetribal demographics continued into the postexilic period (Neh.11:30).

Various Hebrew and Greek words are rendered as “bag,”representing a flexible container used to carry provisions, money,measuring weights, or spices and other valuables. A bag could be madeof animal skins, leather, or cloth. A small bag might be fastened toa belt, while a traveler’s bag large enough to carry severaldays’ provisions would be slung over the shoulder. Itsconstruction could range from a simple bundle of cloth tied withstring to a more fabricated carrying case. In the OT, Joseph putgrain in his brothers’ traveling bags (Gen. 42:25); later thebrothers were advised to present Joseph with gifts of spices and nutsto be toted in their bags (43:11). David carried a shepherd’sprovision bag and used it to hold the stones that he chose for hissling when he killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40, 49). Bags were usedto hold currency or precious metals (2 Kings 5:23; 12:10; Isa.46:6). Merchants carried measuring weights of metal or stone in abag. The Bible stresses the importance of carrying honest measuringstandards in those bags (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11). Jobpours out his hopelessness to God, longing for his sins to bemetaphorically tied up in a bag (14:17).

Inthe Gospels, two kinds of bags are mentioned. One is the traveler’sbag used to carry food and clothing while on a journey. Jesus tellshis disciples not to take such a bag when he sends them out asapostles to preach, heal, and drive out demons (Matt. 10:10; Mark6:8; Luke 9:3; 10:4). Just before his arrest, Jesus reverses thatadvice, instructing his disciples to take not only a bag (forprovisions) and purse (for money) but a sword as well (Luke22:35–36). A different Greek word is used for the moneybag orbox that Judas is in charge of and from which he pilfers (John 12:6).

There were at least two towns called “Bethlehem” (meaning “house of bread”). (1) A town in Zebulun, in the north, about seven miles northwest of Nazareth (Josh. 19:15).

(2) The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah). With the possible exception of the story of the judge Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10), most references to Bethlehem are to the town in Judah, which still exists.

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:16–19). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1 Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1 Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2 Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2 Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2 Sam. 23:14–17; 2 Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:6).

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42). Constantine the Great, the fourth-century Roman emperor, built a church above a cave in Bethlehem, traditionally believed to be the birthplace of Jesus. Today the city boasts a population of about thirty thousand and is one of the most visited sites in Israel, especially during the Christmas season, when thousands of Christians make a pilgrimage to the traditional place of Jesus’ birth.

There were at least two towns called “Bethlehem” (meaning “house of bread”). (1) A town in Zebulun, in the north, about seven miles northwest of Nazareth (Josh. 19:15).

(2) The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah). With the possible exception of the story of the judge Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10), most references to Bethlehem are to the town in Judah, which still exists.

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:16–19). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1 Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1 Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2 Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2 Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2 Sam. 23:14–17; 2 Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:6).

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42). Constantine the Great, the fourth-century Roman emperor, built a church above a cave in Bethlehem, traditionally believed to be the birthplace of Jesus. Today the city boasts a population of about thirty thousand and is one of the most visited sites in Israel, especially during the Christmas season, when thousands of Christians make a pilgrimage to the traditional place of Jesus’ birth.

Temporary homes for seminomadic peoples as well as militarypersonnel. A number of Hebrew words are translated in the EnglishBible as “camp” or “encampment.”

Forexample, a tirah was a camp protected by a stone barrier or wall(Gen. 25:16; Num. 31:10; Ezek. 25:4), a ma’gal was a ring ofwagons or a circular camp (1 Sam. 17:20; 26:5, 7), and a nawahwas perhaps a nomadic pasturage camp (Ps. 68:12 NIV).

Themost frequent word for “camp,” mak­haneh, occurs overtwo hundred times in the OT and is derived from the verbal rootkhanah, meaning “to set up a camp or encampment.” Isaacand Jacob camped during their journeys (Gen. 26:17; 31:25). Afterleaving Laban and meeting the angel of God, Jacob declared the placeof the theophany to be “the camp of God” and named it“Mahanaim,” meaning “double camp” (32:1–2).In Gen. 32:21 Jacob’s camp is probably a traveling entouragecomposed of a number of tents.

Inmany cases makhaneh refers to a military camp. After the exodus andduring the wilderness journeys, the Israelites resided in this typeof settlement (Exod. 14:2, 9; Num. 33; Deut. 2:14–15). Mosesled the Israelites out of the camp to meet with God at Sinai (Exod.19:16–17).

Eachtribe had its own camp (Num. 2). Because of the presence of God inits midst, Israel’s camp was to be holy. Leviticus andDeuteronomy contain laws regulating camp life (Lev. 14:3, 8; Deut.23:10–11). Any unclean person or thing was to be put outsidethe encampment (Num. 5:1–4; Deut. 23:14). The angel of the Lordencamped around them (Ps. 34:7). The Israelite army encamped atnumerous places during the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 4:19) and themonarchical period (1 Sam. 29:1).

TheNT uses the Greek term parembolē to refer to the Israelite campwhere animals sacrificed as sin offerings were “burned outsidethe camp” (Heb. 13:11–13). Since Jesus suffered outsidethe gate as a sacrifice for us, believers are called to join himoutside the camp, “bearing the disgrace he bore.”Revelation 20:9 speaks of “the camp of God’s people.”

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color,but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes,and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can bedescribed as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored”(Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicatechanges or variety of color.

Certaincolors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while othersoccur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange),reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient NearEast. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxuryitems indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly andheavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are notusually described in terms of the colors of their appearance.Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam.17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

Thefollowing colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning inthe Bible:

White.Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), whitemuch more commonly has a positive association, being the color ofpurity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev.1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wearwhite robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black.The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair ofher beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have lesspositive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseasedskin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod.10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red.Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color ofblood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, andminerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, andcrimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animalskins were included in the offerings made for the construction of thetabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa.1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue.Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’scommandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors wereblue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments wereworn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple.Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign ofwealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kingsof Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage ofKing Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonianking Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan.5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in amockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue,purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth andpower, but when used together these three colors were the epitome ofopulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. Thetabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn(Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33).The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron.3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark ofthe Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiahdescribes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to concealtheir worthlessness (10:9).

Gray.Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green.Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-givingfood and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given byGod for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was adevastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). Peoplecould be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful andblessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed(2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

The second king of Israel (r. 1010–970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

David’s importance can be measured by the vast space devoted to the account of his life (1Sam. 16:1–1Kings 2:12; 1Chron. 11:1–29:30). The titles of many psalms identify him as their author. Although there are no contemporary extrabiblical references to David due to the rarity of inscriptions in Palestine at this time, the “house of David” (or Tel Dan) inscription, dated to the eighth century BC, provides an extraordinarily early reference to his dynasty.

David and Saul

Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).

At this point the biblical history turns its attention to David. God commands Samuel to go to Bethlehem, specifically to the household of Jesse, to anoint one of his sons as the next king (1Sam. 16). In contrast to Saul, who is notable because of his tall, imposing physical stature (10:23), David is the youngest and smallest of all the children of Jesse, a simple shepherd. Nonetheless, he is the chosen one because God “looks at the heart” (16:7). However, David does not immediately assume the kingship. Indeed, his anointing is kept secret.

The first two accounts of David’s initial public appearance appear in 1Sam. 16:14–17:58. Some doubt attends the question of whether these two stories are chronologically or thematically organized, but in either case they anticipate David’s later role as psalm singer and warrior. The narrative describes David’s work in Saul’s court as a harpist whose music soothes Saul’s tormented mind (16:14–23) and tells the heroic story of David’s courageous stand against Goliath, a gigantic Philistine mercenary (1Sam. 17).

Although David never shows any signs of subversion or disloyalty, his growing popularity increases the paranoia of Saul. However, Saul cannot simply kill off such a popular figure, even though in a fit of madness he throws a spear at him (1Sam. 18:10–11). Saul instead settles on a plan that would lead to David’s death on the battlefield. Saul offers his daughter to David in marriage. After an abortive first attempt involving his daughter Merab, Saul invites him to marry Michal, though as a bride-price he asks through his attendants for one hundred Philistine foreskins (1Sam. 18:25). Saul assumes that David will surely die in the attempt to obtain them, but instead David kills two hundred Philistines and marries Michal. The alliance to the royal house strengthens his later bid for the throne, but for the moment it serves the purpose of making Saul even more suspicious.

While Saul’s hostility increases toward David, Saul’s son Jonathan develops an intense personal friendship with David (1Sam. 18:1–4). Jonathan recognizes his father’s weaknesses and understands that he will not be the next king. He helps David escape his father’s wrath, and forever afterward David is kind to the descendants of Jonathan (1Sam. 19–20).

Eventually, Saul’s murderous intentions toward David become so intense that he must leave the court and live in the hinterlands, moving from place to place, staying one step ahead of Saul and his men. He is not alone, however. With him is an army of six hundred men, a prophet (Gad), and the high priest (Abiathar). In essence, he functions as a kingdom in exile. He saves the Judean city of Keilah from the Philistines (1Sam. 23:1–6) and protects the flocks of Judean landowners such as the aptly named Nabal (“fool”) (1Sam. 25). The latter is not properly grateful for the help, and David is ready to avenge himself against him. Fortunately, Nabal’s wife, Abigail, wisely intercedes with David. Nabal dies of other causes, and David marries Abigail.

David is to be the next king, but he is no usurper. Two times during this period (1Sam. 24; 26) David’s men are in a position to dispatch the king. It may even be possible to justify such a move because Saul is pursuing David to kill him. David knows, however, that it is wrong to harm the anointed of the Lord. He is not going to manipulate the situation and grasp the kingship; he will wait on the Lord’s own timing. David continues to keep out of Saul’s way, even seeking refuge with the Philistines for a period of time.

Eventually, however, Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).

David’s Kingship

Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).

The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).

David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.

David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.

Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).

David’s Legacy

The account in Chronicles emphasizes David’s role in the preparations for the building of the temple. He had wanted to build the structure, but God says that this task is not for the one who completes the conquest of Canaan (1Chron. 22:8), but rather for his son Solomon, who will inherit a stable nation and whose very name means “peace.”

David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.

An arid environment challenging to life. Desert comprises about a third of the earth’s land surface, often overtaking verdant areas and squeezing human beings and animals into narrower oases. The deserts of the Bible—Negev, Sinai, Paran, and Zin—are part of the greater Saharo-Arabian desert system, the largest and driest in the world. Most of the land east (areas of present-day Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia) and south (Egypt) of Palestine is desert. However, the desert experience of most Israelites was not vast sands but rather arid environments that could otherwise flourish with sufficient water. In this regard, the biblical “wilderness” and “desert” semantically overlap, but they are not the same environments.

With average precipitation of ten inches or less, these regions typically have sparse vegetation and little or no agriculture (Jer. 2:2). Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24–79) describes the Essenes, who lived near the Dead Sea, as having only “the company of palm trees” (Nat. 5.73). Temperatures are severe, often exceeding 110°F on summer days, but also falling below freezing on winter nights. The limited winter rains provide short-lived grass for grazing (1Sam. 17:28; Ps. 65:13; Jer. 23:10), along with thorns and briers (Judg. 8:7). Cisterns were dug to collect the precious rain (Gen. 37:22).

The severity of the environment is not conducive for animal and human life. The Bible mentions wild asses (Job 24:5; Jer. 48:6), jackals (Mal. 1:3), ostriches (Lam. 4:3), owls (Ps. 102:7), poisonous snakes (Isa. 30:6), panthers, and wolves (Hab. 1:8). The desert came to be viewed as the haunt of demons (Matt. 12:43) but also as a place for spiritual refreshment. By definition, a desert is untouched by human hands. The patterns and sounds go back to God, not the noisy neighbors of urban life. The desert therefore can facilitate communion with God because of the absence of distractions and the inevitable deepening awareness of the fragility of existence. Scarcity of resources also requires communal sharing and cooperation for survival.

Instead of in major urban centers in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Palestine, the Bible presents God as training people in the desert by testing their faith, beginning with the patriarchs (Gen. 12–50). God redeems Israel out of Egypt into the desert (Exod. 15:22; 16:1; 17:1), leading them to Sinai (Exod. 18:5; 19:1–2) and then a forty-year sojourn (Num. 14:33; 32:13; Deut. 2:7). Following seasons of testing, concerning which the people routinely fail, God provides freshwater and manna, the “grain of heaven” (Ps. 78:24). However, except on the Sabbath, people are not allowed to store the food but must cultivate complete dependence upon God’s provision for their daily bread. Elijah flees into the wilderness and is provided for by an angel (1Kings 19:1–8). He returns to Mount Sinai (Horeb) and experiences the immediate presence of God in a “thin silence” (1Kings 19:8–13; NIV: “gentle whisper”).

This pattern is repeated in the NT, beginning with John the Baptist, who dresses like a desert nomad and subsists on locusts and wild honey—foods near at hand and not subject to agricultural tithing (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6). After John’s baptism, Jesus departs into the wilderness, where he fasts and is tempted for forty days and nights among the wild beasts but is also provided for by angels (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.). Paul, after his experience on the road to Damascus, departs into Arabia (Nabatea, present-day Jordan), the place “where the nomads live” and the traditional site of Mount Sinai (Pliny the Elder, Nat. 5.72; Gal. 1:17; 4:25). (Damascus, perhaps the oldest city in the world, is an oasis bordering the Arabian Desert on a highway connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia.) The author of Revelation depicts a woman, who represents the people of God, fleeing into the wilderness to escape the red dragon, Satan (Rev. 12:1–6).

One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, listed aspart of the territory of Judah but not taken by Israel at the time ofthe distribution of the land to tribes (Josh. 13:3; 15:11, 45–46;Judg. 1:18), though it bordered Dan (Josh. 19:43).

Uponthe defeat of Hophni and Phinehas, the ark of the covenant was takento the temple of Dagon in Ashdod. After God demonstrated hisdispleasure, the Philistines sent the ark to Ekron, where God greatlyafflicted the people until they sent it back to Israel (1Sam.5).

Ekronserved as the entry point from Israel to Philistia, as witnesses theaccount of the pursuit of the Philistine army to the “gates ofEkron” (1Sam. 17:52) after David defeated Goliath.

In2Kings 1, King Ahaziah is accused of worshiping Baal-Zebub, thegod of Ekron. The prophets pronounced oracles announcing thedestruction of this city (Jer. 25:20; Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5,7).

Ekronhas been identified with a large mound (some fifty acres), Tel Miqne,about fourteen miles from the Mediterranean coast and thirty-fivemiles southwest of Jerusalem.

Temporary homes for seminomadic peoples as well as militarypersonnel. A number of Hebrew words are translated in the EnglishBible as “camp” or “encampment.”

Forexample, a tirah was a camp protected by a stone barrier or wall(Gen. 25:16; Num. 31:10; Ezek. 25:4), a ma’gal was a ring ofwagons or a circular camp (1 Sam. 17:20; 26:5, 7), and a nawahwas perhaps a nomadic pasturage camp (Ps. 68:12 NIV).

Themost frequent word for “camp,” mak­haneh, occurs overtwo hundred times in the OT and is derived from the verbal rootkhanah, meaning “to set up a camp or encampment.” Isaacand Jacob camped during their journeys (Gen. 26:17; 31:25). Afterleaving Laban and meeting the angel of God, Jacob declared the placeof the theophany to be “the camp of God” and named it“Mahanaim,” meaning “double camp” (32:1–2).In Gen. 32:21 Jacob’s camp is probably a traveling entouragecomposed of a number of tents.

Inmany cases makhaneh refers to a military camp. After the exodus andduring the wilderness journeys, the Israelites resided in this typeof settlement (Exod. 14:2, 9; Num. 33; Deut. 2:14–15). Mosesled the Israelites out of the camp to meet with God at Sinai (Exod.19:16–17).

Eachtribe had its own camp (Num. 2). Because of the presence of God inits midst, Israel’s camp was to be holy. Leviticus andDeuteronomy contain laws regulating camp life (Lev. 14:3, 8; Deut.23:10–11). Any unclean person or thing was to be put outsidethe encampment (Num. 5:1–4; Deut. 23:14). The angel of the Lordencamped around them (Ps. 34:7). The Israelite army encamped atnumerous places during the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 4:19) and themonarchical period (1 Sam. 29:1).

TheNT uses the Greek term parembolē to refer to the Israelite campwhere animals sacrificed as sin offerings were “burned outsidethe camp” (Heb. 13:11–13). Since Jesus suffered outsidethe gate as a sacrifice for us, believers are called to join himoutside the camp, “bearing the disgrace he bore.”Revelation 20:9 speaks of “the camp of God’s people.”

One of the five major cities of the Philistines, each ofwhich was ruled by its own lord (Josh. 13:3). Gath was situated closeto the border of Judah. Since the Hebrew word gat means “winepress”and occurs in the names of several places (e.g., Gath Rimmon, GathHepher, Moresheth Gath), there may have been other towns of thisname. Some of the biblical references (e.g., 1Chron. 7:21;8:13) may not be to Philistine Gath.

Themost likely site of Philistine Gath is Tell es-Safi, overlooking themain north-south road through the Shephelah to the west of Jerusalem.Excavations here suggest that the site was inhabited in thepre-Israelite period and during the first millennium BC. Although thecity was rebuilt in the Persian period after its destruction by theBabylonians, it seems to have been abandoned between the late firstcentury BC and Crusader times.

Atthe time of the conquest, Gath (mentioned in the Amarna letters ofthe fourteenth century BC) was inhabited by the formidable Anakites,whom Joshua failed to dislodge (Josh. 11:21–22; see also Deut.1:28; 9:2), and in David’s day it still boasted warriors ofgreat height and strength (2Sam. 21:19–22; 1Chron.20:5–8). However, it was also one of the cities that Godafflicted with tumors when the captured ark of the covenant wasstored there (1Sam. 5:8–9; 6:17), and the mighty Goliathof Gath was no match for God’s anointed (1Sam. 17:8–58).

Ontwo occasions David fled from Saul to Achish, king of Gath. The firsttime, he was so scared of Achish that he feigned insanity and escapedas soon as he could (1Sam. 21:10–22:1; cf. thesuperscription to Ps. 56). The second time, he settled down with sixhundred men and their families to deceive Achish in a different way:he used Gath as a base to attack Israel’s other enemies (1Sam.27:1–30:31), all the while claiming that he was wreakingrevenge on Saul. When Achish himself defeated Saul and Jonathan,David was horrified by the thought that the town of Gath would hearof their deaths and gloat (2Sam. 1:20). His horror ispoetically echoed in Micah’s eighth-century BC lament over adoomed Judah (Mic. 1:10).

Davidseems nevertheless to have made friends as well as enemies in Gath.Obed-Edom the Gittite was blessed rather than cursed when the ark waskept at his house before its final journey to Jerusalem (2Sam.6:10–11; 1Chron. 13:3). After David had conquered Gath(1Chron. 18:1), the six hundred Gittite mercenaries in his armywere among his most loyal followers (2Sam. 15:18–22).

Gathseems to have changed hands fairly frequently thereafter. We knowthat Achish ruled it in Solomon’s day, when Shimei retrievedhis runaway slaves from there (1Kings 2:39–46), and thatit was again in Philistine hands when Uzziah broke down its walls(2Chron. 26:6). In between, however, we are told that Rehoboamof Judah fortified it (2Chron. 11:8), and that in Joash’sreign Hazael of Aram conquered it (2Kings 12:17). The fact thatAmos mentions Gath as “in Philistia” (Amos 6:2) but doesnot group it with the other four cities of the Philistines (1:6–8)may mean that it was under Israelite control at the time. Assyrianrecords from the eighth century BC describe several campaigns againstrebellious Philistine cities, including the city of Gath (Annals ofSargonII).

In both Testaments “head” can refer to theliteral head of the physical body or be symbolic of leadership andthe source of provision.

Thephysical head played a significant role in Jewish and Christiancustoms. Cutting off an opponent’s head was a symbol of victory(1Sam. 17:46; 1Chron. 10:9–10). The consecration ofpriests and kings was done by anointing the head with oil (Exod.29:7; Lev. 8:12; 1Sam. 10:1). Contrition and shame weredisplayed by covering one’s head (2Sam. 15:30; Jer.14:3). Grief was expressed by casting dust or ashes on the head (Job1:20; 2Sam. 13:19; 15:32; Lam. 2:10; Ezek. 27:30; Rev. 18:19)or shaving one’s own head (Job 1:20; Jer. 16:6). The head wasthe place for receiving blessing, as when Jacob laid his hands onManasseh and Ephraim to bless them (Gen. 48:14), or guilt, as whenSolomon declared that the guilt over the blood of the two Israelitecommanders murdered by Joab would rest “on the head of Joab andhis descendants forever” (1Kings 2:33). Lifting up thehead was associated with the giving of life in terms of success (Gen.40:13; Judg. 8:28; Ps. 27:6).

Becauseof the prominent physical role of the head as the topmost andpreeminent part of the body, it was often used as a symbol forleadership and the source of provision. Ancient medical writers suchas Hippocrates and Galen viewed the head as the leading member of thebody. Ancient political writers adapted the idea and applied it tomilitary and political leaders, such as Nero, who was called the“head” of Rome. For the political writers in particular,the emphasis often was on the power and authority of the head.

Examplesof this use of “head” as leader and source of provisionin the Bible include Judg. 10:18, where the leaders of Gilead declarethat whoever launches the attack against the Ammonites will be thehead of the inhabitants of Gilead. After the elders successfullyappeal to Jephthah, the people make him “head and commander”over them (Judg. 11:11). Christ’s ruling function is emphasizedin Col. 2:10, where he is called the “head over every power andauthority.” In Eph. 4:16 Paul states that Christ as the head isthe one “from [whom] the whole body ... grows andbuilds itself up in love.”

Inthe NT, Paul’s use of the metaphor for the relationship betweenChrist and the church and husbands and wives is particularlysignificant. When Paul applies the metaphor to Christ and the church,he implies that Christ provides both leadership to the body as wellas the nourishment needed for its continued growth. Thus, in Col.2:19 the head is the one “from whom the whole body ...grows as God causes it to grow,” and in Eph. 5:23–24Christ is “the head of the ... body,” the oneto whom the church submits.

Pauluses the head/body metaphor in reference to Christ with someflexibility. Whereas Christ is the head of the church, his body, inEphesians and Colossians, in 1Cor. 11:3 his headship is part ofa series in which God is the head of Christ, Christ is the head ofman, and man is the head of woman. In Eph. 1:22 he is head over theentire universe.

InEph. 5:21–33 the head/body metaphor is applied to therelationship between husbands and wives, and specifically incomparison with Christ and the church’s relationship as headand body. As Christ is the head of the church, so is the husband thehead of the wife. Thus, both provide leadership and growth to theirrespective bodies. It is important to note that the husband’srole as head is defined in terms of loving his wife and bringing herto holiness. The husband’s headship does not consist of anarbitrary power over his wife, especially one based on his owninterests and whims. Rather, it is a sacrificial leadership thatreflects Christ’s love for the church. It is a leadership inwhich he gives his life for his wife as Christ gave his life for thechurch and nourishes her by providing what is most beneficial forher. See also Head of the Church.

Several Hebrew words in the OT are translated as “lion,”most commonly ’ari, but also lebe’ (Ps. 57:4), layish(Prov. 30:30), and shakhal (Job 10:16). The terms kepir (Isa. 31:4)and gur (Deut. 33:22) probably refer to a young lion or cub, althoughthe precise difference between theterms is not always clear. The only Greek term found in biblicaltexts is leōn. Lions appear to have lived widely throughout theancient Near East in OT times, but by the time of the NT they appearto have been far less common in the wild, although theRomans used them for cruel entertainment.

Thelion’s strength, ferocity, and unpredictability probably standbehind its symbolic use in reference to God (Job 10:16; Hos. 13:7),Israel’s enemies (Pss. 17:12; 22:21; Jer. 2:30; 5:6), and eventhe devil (1Pet. 5:8). Overcoming a lion is a sign of strengthand, in light of ancient Near Eastern royal connections, highlightsthe victor’s qualities as a leader (e.g., Judg. 14; 1Sam.17:34–37).

The Philistines inhabited the southern coastal plain ofPalestine as early as the time of Abraham (Gen. 21:32, 34; 26:1, 8,14–15, 18) and of Moses (Exod. 13:17; 15:14; 23:31), and aslate as the exilic (Ezek. 16:27, 57; 25:15–16) and postexilic(Zech. 9:6) periods.

Historyand Culture

Thegeographical origin(s) of the Philistines cannot be stated withcertainty, though it appears likely that at least some of thePhilistines came from the vicinity of the Aegean Sea. The Philistineswere descendants of the Kasluhites (Gen. 10:14; cf. 1Chron.1:12), a group whose identity is uncertain. Since the Kasluhites aredescendants of Ham listed among other peoples from Egypt (Gen. 10:6,13–14), perhaps the Philistines migrated from the Nile Delta toone of the Mediterranean islands before moving to Canaan.

Therewas apparently a close association between the Kasluhites and theCaphtorites (cf. Gen. 10:14), for Amos 9:7 suggests that thePhilistines were from Caphtor (cf. Deut. 2:23; Jer. 47:4), a regionusually identified with Crete. The connection with Crete is seen withgreater clarity in Ezek. 25:16; Zeph. 2:5–6, for both prophetsrefer to the Philistines and the Kerethites (=Cretans) inparallel phrases. Caution leads us to note that the authors of Samueland Kings, though frequently referring to the Philistines, did notclearly equate the Philistines and the Kerethites (cf. 1Sam.30:14; 2Sam. 8:18; 15:18; 20:7, 23; 1Kings 1:38, 44;1Chron. 18:17).

Thematerial culture of the Philistines between about 1150 and 1000 BCshows similarities to, and likely influence from, what is found inthe islands of the Aegean Sea, Mycenae (southern Greece), Crete,Anatolia (south-central Turkey), Cyprus (cf. Num. 24:24), Egypt, andCanaan.

Philistinepottery of this time resembles what has been found in Mycenae (bowls,jars, and cups), Crete (cups), Cyprus (bottles, vessels, and a hollowpottery ring), and Egypt (jugs and cups). The spear and defensivegear of Goliath (1Sam. 17:5–7) were similar to theequipment of Aegean warriors. The hearths found at Tel Miqne (Ekron)and Tell Qasile were designed like those in Anatolia and the Aegeanregion. Philistine mud-brick altars were likely fashioned in light ofAegean, Cyprian, and Canaanite influence. The Ashdoda (a thronerepresenting a female deity) reflects Mycenaean, Cyprian, andCanaanite inspiration. This archaeological evidence suggests that atleast some of the Philistine inhabitants of the southern coastalplain of Palestine came from Mycenae (southern Greece) and theislands of the Aegean Sea in the late thirteenth or early twelfthcenturies BC, passing through Cyprus and Crete (and perhaps Anatoliaand/or Egypt) en route.

ThePhilistines adopted Canaanite gods (cf. 1Sam. 17:43), includingDagon (Judg. 16:23; 1Sam. 5:2–7), Ashtoreth (1Sam.31:10; cf. Judg. 10:6; 1Sam. 7:3–4), and Baal-Zebub(“lord of flies,” probably a cynical distortion ofBaal-Zebul, “lord of the [heavenly] dwelling”), the godof Ekron (2Kings 1:2–6, 16).

ThePhilistine Pentapolis consisted of three cities on or near theMediterranean coast (Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Gaza) and two inlandcities (Ekron and Gath) under the authority of five rulers (cf. Josh.13:3; Judg. 3:3; 1Sam. 6:4, 16, 18).

PapyrusHarrisI describes the defeat of the Philistines and other SeaPeoples by Ram-essesIII (1198–1166 BC), while theEgyptian Onomasticon of Amenope (late twelfth or early eleventhcentury BC) refers to the Philistines as one of the ethnic groupsthat settled in Palestine.

Philistinesin the Bible

Themention of Philistines in Gen. 21 and 26 refers either to earlyinhabitants of the territory that later would be inhabited byPhilistines or to peoples who later would become part of thePhilistine nation. The Philistines mentioned in the Bible mayconstitute diverse peoples who migrated by land or by sea to thesouthern coastal region of Palestine over several centuries.

Priorto the influx of at least some of the Philistines from easternMediterranean islands, the southern coastal region was, at varioustimes, inhabited by Canaanites (Num. 13:29; Deut. 1:7; Josh. 5:1; cf.Josh. 13:4); Anakites, who fled to Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod after beingdefeated by Joshua (Josh. 11:21–22); and Avvites, who werereplaced by the victorious Caphtorites (Deut. 2:23; Josh. 13:3).

Themigration of Judah and other tribes of Israel into Canaan resulted inseveral centuries of hostility with the Philistines. Judah’sallotment of land included the cities and surrounding areas of Ekron,Ashdod, and Gaza, as well as “the coastline of theMediterranean Sea” (Josh. 15:45–47). The soldiers ofJudah subsequently conquered at least part of this area (Judg. 1:18).

Duringthe time of the judges, Shamgar “struck down six hundredPhilistines with an oxgoad” (Judg. 3:31). Samson burned thegrain, vineyards, and olive groves of the Philistines when hefastened torches to the tails of foxes (15:4–5). He killed athousand Philistines with the jawbone of a donkey (15:15) and, afterthey had gouged out his eyes, killed many Philistine leaders when hepushed over the pillars supporting one of their temples (16:21,29–30).

Inone of their many victories over Israel (cf. Judg. 10:7; 13:1; 15:11;1Sam. 4:2, 10; 12:9), the Philistines captured the ark of Godand placed it in the temple of Dagon in Ashdod (5:1). The next daythe god was found lying on his face before the ark of God.

Saul’sreign as Israel’s king was characterized by war with thePhilistines (1Sam. 9:16; 14:52; cf. 7:13) and included bothdefeat (13:6–7; 23:27; 31:1) and victory (14:13, 22, 31, 47;17:52–53; 24:1).

Themilitary dominance of the Philistines over Israel during the time ofSaul is attributed to their control of blacksmithing and ironwork(1Sam. 13:19–22). This superiority in weapons allowed thePhilistines to extend their influence beyond the region of the fivecities into Judean territory (1Sam. 4:1; 7:7; 10:5; 13:3,16–18, 23; 17:1; 29:1, 11; 31:7–8, 10; 2Sam. 5:18,22; 23:14).

Saulbecame jealous of David after his defeat of the Philistine championGoliath (1Sam. 17:4, 50; 18:7–9). To win the hand ofSaul’s daughter Michal, David and his men killed two hundredPhilistines and presented their foreskins to Saul (18:27). When Saullater attempted to kill David, David sought refuge with thePhilistines and lived with them for sixteen months (27:1, 7).

Whenthe Philistines gathered to fight against Israel, David’s host,Achish, invited him to participate in the battle against his enemySaul (1Sam. 28:1). David was spared the dilemma of fightingagainst his own people when, fearing his betrayal, the otherPhilistine rulers refused to let David accompany them (29:4). In theensuing battle between Israel and the Philistines, Saul’s sonswere killed, and Saul took his own life after being criticallyinjured by a Philistine archer (31:2–4).

David’searly success in battle against the Philistines (1Sam. 17:50;19:8; 23:5) continued upon his accession to kingship after the deathof Saul (2Sam. 5:20, 25; 8:1, 12), though in his old age Davidwas too tired to fight well against the Philistines (2Sam.21:15).

Laterbattles between Judah and the Philistines took place during thereigns of Jehoram (2Chron. 21:16–17), Uzziah (2Chron.26:6–7), Ahaz (2Chron. 28:18), and Hezekiah (2Kings18:8). Jehoshaphat received tribute from the Philistines (2Chron.17:11).

Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats formeat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integralpart of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected inbiblical portrayals of Abel (Gen. 4:2), Moses (Exod. 3:1), David(1Sam. 16:11), and Jesus (Luke 2:8–20; John 10:11, 14).

Ashepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gen. 30:37–43). Sons(Gen. 37:2), daughters (Gen. 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gen. 13:7;1Sam. 25:7; Luke 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculturedeveloped and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized(note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended thesheep [1Sam. 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gen. 46:34).Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to andfrom nearby arable land (Gen. 29:7–14). Once all the grazingland had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland farenough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live aseminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water wereneeded (Gen. 37:12; cf. Isa. 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshiftenclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a caveand remained with the flock throughout the night (Gen. 31:40; Song1:8; Luke 2:8).

Ashepherd’s tools included a clublike rod used to guard theflock and fend off predators and thieves (Gen. 31:39; Isa. 31:4; Mic.7:14) and as a tool for dividing the flock (Lev. 27:32; Jer. 33:13);a crook or staff to retrieve strays and injured (Ezek. 34:16; Zech.11:7); a sling and some sort of pouch (1Sam. 17:40); and evendogs (Job 30:1). A shepherd was held accountable for any losses inthe flock and was required to pay restitution (Gen. 31:39; Exod.22:10–13).

Thevital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturallyled to the metaphorical use of the term to refer to both civilauthorities (Num. 27:17; 1Kings 22:17; Isa. 44:28; Ezek.34:1–19) and deity (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Pss. 23:1; 78:52), bothin Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Exod. 15:13, 17;Ps. 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile(Ps. 44:11–23; Jer. 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayedin pastoral terms as Yahweh shepherding his people to safe pasture.In the NT, Jesus called himself the “good shepherd” (John10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders whoare to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection ofGod’s people (Acts 20:28; 1Pet. 5:1–3).

A mineral cluster or rock. Although the terms “rock”and “stone” are occasionally used synonymously, “rock”usually refers to a large geological formation such as a cliff, cave,outcropping, or bedrock, while “stone” is preferred whenthe rock is small enough to be fashioned or handled by human beings.“Stone” can also function as an adjective, referring to amaterial made of stone, or as a verb, referring to the casting ofstones.

Rocksand stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12;Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as asign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a markeror memorial (Gen. 31:46–50), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). Asingle rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen.28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones(Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also beused to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb,such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus(Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stonewas used as a construction material, particularly for the temple(1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15;Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundationand for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26;Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becomingthe cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus(Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf.Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh.8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments wereinscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf.2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai theIsraelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed”stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). Thephrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, sincestone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf.Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); theterm “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to anidol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer.3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stoneswere used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown byhand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam.17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone”refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typicallyfunctioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29;Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd(Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

Thephrases “precious stones” and “costly stones”refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor.3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and fordecoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones onthe high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on hisbreastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12,17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of preciousstones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocksand stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as arock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common(1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12),hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless(Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone”describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumblingstone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble(Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faithin Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).

A close-quarters offensive weapon designed for slashing (cf.“the edge of the sword” [Josh. 8:24; 10:30 NRSV]),stabbing (e.g., Ps. 37:15), or both. The OT Hebrew word kherebencompasses many kinds of swords, including short swords or daggers(Judg. 3:16). In the NT, a distinction is made between thedouble-edged sword that was perfected in the Roman gladius, a weapondesigned for deep penetration in stabbing (e.g., Luke 2:35), and themore common short sword or dagger. Appearing in accounts of wars andfigures of speech, the sword is the most frequently mentioned weaponin the Bible. Swords were made of bronze or iron and could beceremonial in use. Early swords were often sickle-shaped, as seen onEgyptian reliefs, and were also a badge of rank. The outer edge ofthe curve was sharpened. This style of sword is probably to beunderstood in Josh. 10:28–39. Later, particularly among the SeaPeoples, straight iron swords appear, such as have been found inburials in the Philistine territory. This style of sword is probablyintended in Ps. 149:6. In early Israel a sword, especially one madeof iron, was a rare and prized weapon representing the besttechnology of its kind (1Sam. 13:19, 22; 17:45–50).Later, short swords were common enough that they could be obtainedfor defense (Luke 22:36–38).

Thesword often functions as a terrifying symbol of warfare, death, andutter destruction—often expressions of God’s judgment(Gen. 3:24; Deut. 13:15; 20:13; Josh. 6:21; Jer. 6:25; Rev. 6:4, 8).Yet it could also represent power and consequent victory (Lev.26:7–8; Ps. 149:6). Metaphorically, the sword is associatedwith imagery connected to the mouth: it eats and is satisfied (Deut.32:42; Isa. 1:20; 34:6); tongues or teeth may be like swords (Pss.57:4; 64:3; Prov. 12:18; 30:14); words are like swords (Eph. 6:17;Heb. 4:12; cf. Rev. 1:16; 19:21).

Also known as kherem warfare or Yahweh war. The term “holywar,” though never used in the Bible, characterizes well thewars that Israel fought at God’s command, particularly thosewithin the Promised Land. God is present with Israel in war, and thusthe battlefield becomes holy ground. God gives Israel instructionsconcerning the waging of war in Deut. 7, 20. From these passages,plus the historical accounts of Israel’s wars, we can describeholy war as follows.

Beforethe Battle

Godtells Israel when to go to war. Israel’s leaders cannot engagein battle without first hearing from God. God reveals himself toJoshua, for instance, before the battle of Jericho to give himinstructions (Josh. 5:13–15). David inquires of God through thepriest Abiathar, who presumably uses oracular devices to discoverGod’s will (1Sam. 23:1–6). Joshua makes a seriouserror in not seeking God’s will in the matter of the Gibeonites(Josh. 9:14).

Oncethe Israelites learn that God wants them to go to battle, they mustspiritually prepare themselves. Since God makes his presence known onthe battlefield, the troops must be in a state of ritual puritycomparable to those who visit the sanctuary. Before the conquest, forinstance, it is necessary for the fighting men to undergocircumcision and to observe the Passover (Josh. 5:2–12).Prebattle sacrifices are also required (1Sam.13).

Duringthe Battle

TheArk of the Covenant plays a central role in holy war, carried bypriests and accompanying the army. The ark is a powerful symbol ofGod’s presence and indicates to the army that God fights forthem. The march into battle takes the form of a religious procession.The priests carrying the ark go first, while singers praise God(2Chron. 20:20–21). The long march in the wilderness hasthe character of such a march into battle, since Moses begins theday’s journey by shouting, “Rise up, Lord! May yourenemies be scattered; may your foes flee before you” (Num.10:35). Then the ark carried by priests leads the way.

SinceGod is present with the army, the number of troops and the quality oftheir weapons are unimportant. Indeed, on occasion when Israel has anample supply of troops, God commands that the war leader reduce theirnumber, as in the famous story of Gideon paring down his troops fromthirty-two thousand to three hundred. The purpose of this reductionis to demonstrate to the people with certainty that they win thebattle only because of God’s strength. The inexperienced David,armed with a slingshot, expresses this sentiment to the mercenarygiant Goliath before he kills him: “You come against me withsword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name ofthe Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you havedefied.... All those gathered here will know thatit is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves; for the battle isthe Lord’s, and he will give all of you into our hands”(1Sam. 17:45, 47). Although the Israelites must engage theenemy, they know for certain that it is God who provides the victory.

Afterthe Battle

SinceGod wins the battle for Israel, the proper response is praise. The OTcontains many songs that celebrate victory in warfare (Exod. 15;Judg. 5; Pss. 24; 98; 149).

Thetreatment of the plunder and prisoners of war depends on whether thebattle takes place in the promised land. If the battle takes placeoutside the land, then, while the men are killed, the women andchildren are spared. If the battle takes place in the land, thenkherem goes into effect. The Hebrew word kherem is difficult totranslate (possibilities include “complete destruction,”“things under the ban,” “things devoted to theLord”), but it is clear that it means that all the plunder goesto God (the sanctuary treasury) and that all the people (men, women,and children), and sometimes all the animals, are killed. The purposeof this is to keep the inhabitants of the land from influencingIsrael to worship other gods. Also, God uses Israel as an instrumentof his judgment against these sinful nations.

Warfareagainst Israel

Whilemost divinely ordained warfare was directed toward Israel’senemies, God also used foreign nations to judge his sinful people.The initial defeat at Ai (Josh. 7), the capture of the ark by thePhilistines at the time of Eli (1Sam. 4), and the destructionof Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians (Lam. 2) are examples.

NewTestament Holy War

Theprophets who ministered during the exilic and postexilic periodsannounced that God would appear again in the future. The people ofIsrael were living under the oppressive hand of Babylon and thenPersia, but they were comforted by the idea that God would come andsave them from their enemies (Dan. 7; Zech. 14; Mal.4).

Whenthe NT opens, John the Baptist proclaims that the time of judgmentannounced by these prophets has come (Matt. 3:7–12). After hebaptizes Jesus, he is put in prison and hears reports of Jesus’ministry that disturb him. He wonders why Jesus is not bringingviolent judgment against the enemies of God (Matt. 11:1–15).But Jesus has heightened and intensified the warfare so that it isdirected against the “powers and principalities,” andthis battle is won with spiritual weapons (2Cor. 10:3–6;Eph. 6:10–20). Indeed, the ultimate victory is achieved not bykilling but by dying. Paul describes the crucifixion and ascensionusing warfare language in Eph. 4:7–10; Col. 2:13–15.

John,however, was not wrong. The book of Revelation is the fulleststatement of Christ’s return, which will signal the final war.In this war, all evil, both spiritual and human, will be brought toan end (Rev. 19:11–21).

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

The English word “angel” refers to nonhumanspirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel”(Heb. malak; Gk. angelos) mean “messenger” and can referto one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterlyloyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). Themessenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).

Messengerssent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were hismessengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).

OldTestament

Thereare few references to angels (plural) in the OT. In heaven theypraise God and worship him (Pss. 103:20; 148:2). God sends his angelsto accompany his people (Gen. 28:12; 32:1) and to protect them(Ps. 91:11) and once sent them to destroy Egypt (Ps. 78:49).

Anangel in human form was referred to as a “man of God”(Judg. 13:6), the same term used for a prophet (cf. 1 Kings13:14).

Angelsevoked fear and wonder. They are described as shining (Matt. 28:3;Acts 12:7). When humans bowed to worship angels, they were rebukedbecause God alone is to be worshiped (Rev. 22:8–9).

Godhimself, not being a part of the created order, cannot be seen. Inorder to communicate with people, he sometimes speaks through a formcalled “the angel of the Lord.” The angel of the Lordappeared to Abraham in human form (Gen. 18; cf. Josh. 5:13–15),but to Moses as fire (Exod. 3:2). When he spoke, it was God speaking(Exod. 3:4, 14). He guided and guarded Israel out of Egypt andthrough the desert (23:20–23). He appeared within the pillar offire or cloud (13:21–22; 14:19), being seen through the pillaron occasion as “the glory of the Lord” (16:7–10;24:16–17; 33:9–11; 40:17, 34–38), and later as hefilled Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 8:11).

Ina series of visions of the glory of the Lord (Ps. 18:7–15;Ezek. 1; Rev. 4:7) we encounter four “living creatures”called “cherubim” (Ezek. 10:20–22) that are notexplicitly identified as angels and whose visible appearance is parthuman and part animal. Their form was placed on the cover of the Arkof the Covenant (Exod. 25:18) and embroidered on the curtains of thetabernacle (26:1). Cherubim guarded the eastern entry into the gardenof Eden (Gen. 3:24), implying that Eden, the place where God appearedon earth, was now excluded from the area allocated to humankind.

InIsaiah’s vision of God’s glory, he describes, literally,“flaming ones” (Heb. seraphim) located above God andcrying, “Holy, holy, holy” (Isa. 6:1–7). All weknow of them is that they had six wings, whereas the cherubim hadfour (Ezek. 1:11). It may be that seraphim are not a separate classof angels but simply a description appropriate to all angels, sinceelsewhere we are told (Ps. 104:4; Heb. 1:7) that God’s angelsare “flames of fire.”

Angelsare also called “holy ones” (Deut. 33:2) and “spirits”or “winds” (Zech. 6:5; cf. Ps. 104:4). Since God’speople are also called “holy ones” (Dan. 7:27; NIV: “holypeople”), it may be difficult to know if a given reference isto angels or people (e.g., Deut. 33:3).

Angelsare first named in the book of Daniel: Gabriel, whose name means“hero of God” (8:16; 9:21; [cf. Luke 1:19, 26]); Michael,whose name means “who is like God?” (10:13, 21; 12:1 [cf.Jude 9; Rev. 12:7]) and who is also called “one of the chiefprinces,” “your prince,” and “the greatprince.” The Hebrew word for “prince” (sar) alsomeans “commander” (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:55) and thusmight refer to Michael’s standing as a commander of God’sangelic armies (cf. Jude 9, where he is called “archangel”).During the intertestamental period, texts outside the Scriptures tendto give more attention to angels in elaborate stories, introducingsuch names as Raphael and Uriel (see Tobit, 1 Enoch, etc.).

IntertestamentalPeriod and New Testament

Duringthe intertestamental period some Jews came to think that angelsranked higher than humans, since the Greeks asserted that anythingphysical was evil and only purely spiritual beings could be holy.Increasingly detailed stories about angels served to distance Godfrom the evils of physical reality. The myth of the fall of theangels arose during this time through a series of writings claimingto come from the pen of Enoch (1 Enoch), stimulating a largenumber of other writings. Some people even went so far as to worshipangels (Col. 2:18).

Somereferences to angels are difficult to understand. In Matt. 18:10Jesus warns people to treat children well because their angels haveconstant access to God. The simplest meaning is that angelicmessengers will tell God what has happened with these children.Rhoda’s reference to Peter’s “angel” as if itwere his ghost probably reflects a local superstition (Acts 12:15) ora sectarian Jewish belief that the righteous become angels when theydie. Paul’s comment that a woman should have “authorityover her own head” (i.e., her head covered) “because ofthe angels” (1 Cor. 11:10) remains something of a puzzle,and his unique reference to the language of angels appears to behyperbole (1 Cor. 13:1).

Paulwarns us that Satan can appear as “an angel of light,”meaning that he would work through one who claimed to bring a messagein accord with the gospel (2 Cor. 11:14). The devil has his“angels/messengers” (Matt. 25:41), although we knowlittle about them.

Angelsdo not marry, reproduce, or die (Matt. 22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke20:35–36). The NT affirms that angels rank below God’speople and serve them (1 Cor. 6:3; Heb.1:4–14; 2:5, 16),as they did Jesus (Matt. 4:11; Mark 1:13; cf. 1 Kings 19:5–7;Luke 22:43). Angels have limited understanding or knowledge of God’splans and purposes (1 Pet. 1:12), although they reveal God’sword (Rev. 1:1). They bring the spirits of God’s people toheaven when they die (Luke 16:22) and implement God’s judgmenton the last day (Matt. 13:39, 49; 16:27; 24:31; 25:31; Mark 8:38;13:27; Luke 9:26; 2 Thess. 1:7; Rev. 14:15–19). Theyrejoice when a sinner repents (Luke 15:10). Christians already standin the greater assembly that includes the angels (Heb.12:22).Eventually, Jesus will welcome his people into the heavenly courtroomin the presence of the angels (Luke 12:8–9; Rev. 3:5). See alsoArchangel.

Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remainsof past human life and activities. It can also be described as theprocedure by which ancient artifacts are recovered, identified, andinterpreted. Archaeology deals with both the prehistorical andhistorical periods and encompasses both written (epigraphical) andunwritten (artifactual) discoveries. Even though literary remains(inscriptions, ostraca [potsherds], seals) are typically the subjectof other disciplines, archaeological investigation usually isresponsible for their discovery. Without archaeology much of theavailable written evidence would have remained buried forever in theground. Unwritten materials include everything made by humans, suchas fortifications, pottery, tools, jewelry, and weapons.

Biblicalarchaeology more narrowly focuses on the material remains of Israeland its neighboring countries that relate to the biblical period andnarrative. For example, ancient texts recovered from sites such asMari, Ugarit, Ebla, and Amarna shed valuable light on the biblicalrecord and on the history and religion of the ancient Near East.Biblical archaeology may be understood as the process of correlatingarchaeological evidence with the biblical record. Archaeology and theBible are closely related because they inform each other. Thus, eventhough archaeology and biblical studies are independent disciplines,they are certainly interrelated.

TheHistory of Biblical Archaeology

Tounderstand better the meaning of biblical archaeology, it isnecessary to briefly trace its history. Before the 1800s little wasknown about the Bible’s background, despite its central role inthe religion and culture of the world, because the Bible was theprimary source for access to the history of ancient Israel and itsneighbors. There were few sources to which the Scripture historianscould appeal besides the apocryphal writings and the works ofJosephus, because the early Greek historians (Herodotus andThucydides) were of limited value, given their interest in the “majorplayers” of history.

Thediscovery of the Rosetta Stone (dated 196 BC) in 1799 and itsdecipherment in 1822 by J. F. Champollion opened wide the doorsto ancient Egypt’s history. Within twenty-five years, by thedecipherment of Akkadian cuneiform by Henry Rawlinson (1846), theworld had the key to reading and interpreting thousands of tabletsand monumental texts from ancient Babylonia, Assyria, and even theland of the Hittites. These two major developments allowed the voicesfrom the ancient world of the Bible to speak once more and encouragedhistorians to look at the Bible as supported by the background datacoming from the rest of the ancient Near East. As a result of thesedevelopments, a new interest was kindled in ancient Near Easterncultures and the material remains (realia) that they left behind,coupled with a renewed interest in the setting of the biblical text.

Initialexcavations of biblical sites.Thebeginnings of scientific exploration of Palestine can be traced to1838 when American Edward Robinson (geographer and explorer) aided bythe Arabist Eli Smith undertook a historic trip to the Holy Land andsucceeded in identifying over one hundred biblical sites, effectivelylaying the foundations for biblical archaeology and geography. Thisled to the establishment of the British Palestine Exploration Fund in1865 for the purpose of exploring Palestine systematically andscientifically, and to several of the geographic surveys of westernPalestine and Transjordan.

Thebeginning of major excavations of biblical sites was not far behind,and in 1890 William M. F. Petrie (a renowned Egyptologist then)initiated what is widely regarded as the first modern archaeologicalexcavation in the Holy Land. He excavated Tell el-Hesi(identification still uncertain) in the northern Negev, and his workunderlies archaeological inquiry in the Holy Land to this day. Morespecifically, Petrie laid the foundations of modern archaeology byhis application of stratigraphy and ceramic typology.

Stratigraphyis the technique of digging a tell (a cone-shaped mound that containsthe remains of successive human occupation over a long period oftime) layer by layer while carefully separating and recording thecontents of each occupational layer. This technique tries to untanglethese layers in the reverse order (the older layers of occupation arealways below the newer layers) of their deposition and to reconstructthe history of a site period by period.

Typologyis the technique of classifying artifacts based on their externalcharacteristics (shape, ware, and decoration). Pottery is consideredan accurate tool for dating the occupational layers of a tell, andceramic typology is the art of charting changes in local potterystyles. By analyzing the pottery lying within successive layers atHesi, Petrie was able to construct a relative chronological frameworkfor Palestine. To arrive at a more absolute chronology, theresearchers from Palestine usually need (especially in the earlierperiods) to correlate their findings with similar styles fromneighboring areas, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, where there areavailable written records and astronomically fixed dates.

BeforeWorld War I, the first and only American excavation in Palestinethat deserves mention is that of George A. Reisner and architectClarence S. Fisher between 1908 and 1910 at Sebastiyeh (biblicalSamaria). The rest are usually considered to have resembled “treasurehunts.” By the use of systematic digging and recording inPalestine, the Reisner-Fisher method, which was far morecomprehensive and meticulous than Petrie’s, greatly improvedPalestinian archaeology.

Thefirst golden age.The “golden age” of American excavation in Palestinefollowed a few decades later, after World War I in the 1920s and1930s. Numerous and well-financed archaeological digs started at thefollowing biblical sites: Ai, Bethel, Beth-shean, Beth-shemesh,Beth-zur, Debir, Gibeah, Jericho, Mizpah, Samaria, Shechem, andothers. All of these excavations, however, were overshadowed by thework of Orientalist W. F. Albright at Tell Beit Mirsim (identitystill disputed, but perhaps Debir).

Itwas Albright and those of the American school in Jerusalem (now theAlbright Institute of Archaeology) who dominated the scene in theseformative years. Albright refined Petrie’s methodology andintegrated very well archaeology, biblical research, and ancient NearEastern studies, thus establishing biblical (and Palestinian)archaeology as a discipline in its own right. He also envisioned an“archaeological revolution” that would open up the lands,peoples, and lost sites of the ancient Near East so that the Biblewould be better understood and also gain new credibility. Hecertainly was reacting against the spirit of his time, when steriledebates of textual and literary criticism (especially of theskeptical variety) were prevalent in both European and Americanliberalism, and this seems to have led some to believe thatarchaeology’s primary function was to “prove the Bibletrue.”

Thesecond golden age.A second “golden age” of biblical archaeology is usuallyconsidered to have arrived after World War II when variousforeign teams worked throughout the Middle East in cooperation withlocal archaeologists, a trend that continues today. The archaeologyof Palestine advanced rapidly, with significant improvements in thetechniques of digging and recording. The greatest influence onarchaeological method at this time belongs to Kathleen Kenyon(English excavator of Jericho [Tell es-Sultan]), whosestratigraphical method (known as the Wheeler-Kenyon method) is usedeven today by excavators, with modifications. Other importantarchaeologists who contributed significantly to the biblicalarchaeology movement are Yigael Yadin of Israel and G. E. Wrightof the United States.

Duringthe height of its prominence and promise, biblical archaeology becamean important component for the biblical theology movement and alsofor Christian apologetics (especially as represented by Joseph Freeof Wheaton College). In fact, one of the greatest theologians in thebiblical theology movement, G. E. Wright, was also Albright’sstudent. He conducted a major excavation at Tell Balath (biblicalShechem), following the Wheeler-Kenyon method and emphasizing potterychronology in the tradition of the Albright school. More important,Shechem was a training ground for many American archaeologists whereWright created a new school of field archaeology.

Thenew archaeology.In the 1960s, under the influence of the social and natural sciences,the “new archaeology” that developed tended to focus onthe comprehensive study of humans as species (and not on historicalissues). William G. Dever (a student and follower of G. E.Wright at the important Tel Gezer project) argued forcefully andsuccessfully for the “liberation” of Near Easternarchaeology from biblical studies and preferred the term (prevalenttoday in most American schools) “Syro-Palestinian archaeology.”Today, with very few exceptions (e.g., Harvard University), mostAmerican universities offer classes in the archaeology ofSyria-Palestine (this was apparently Albright’s old alternateterm for biblical archaeology), not in biblical archaeology. The nameof the popular magazine Biblical Archaeologist was also changed toAncient Near Eastern Archaeology, despite protests from many of itsreaders.

Thenew archaeology began with the realization in the 1960s that muchdata of potential significance has been overlooked, and perhaps evenvital evidence has been discarded. New questions and methodsdeveloped from the frustration that old questions have not beenanswered satisfactorily. The temporal and geographical horizons ofthe new archaeology broadened to include the Paleolithic period(c. 100,000 BC) through the Ottoman era (AD 1922), and attentionis now paid to the neglected periods of Judaism and earlyChristianity.

Moreimportant, the composition of the dig staff broadened considerably toinclude a much larger body of scientists to assist in answering thenew questions posed. Today, the field archaeologists (besideshistorians, linguists, and ceramic experts) are supported bygeologists, anthropologists, paleoethnobotanists, zoologists,climatologists, hydrologists, ethnographers, and, more recently,statisticians and computer experts. It is clear that the newarchaeology is done in a very interdisciplinary way. The Tell Hesbanand Khirbat en-Nahas excavations (both in Jordan) are good models ofthis type of interdisciplinary research. Bones, seeds, and otherorganic materials are now saved and carefully recorded to addressquestions related to economic strategies, social differentiation,diet, disease, and the like. Soil and pollen samples are taken,extensive regional and environmental surveys are carried out, andmaterial culture samples and artifacts are submitted forsophisticated analysis. It is ironic (according to Dever) that thisnew and “secular” archaeology, while demanding moreautonomy from the Bible, promises to contribute even more to biblicalstudies as it grows in precision and sophistication.

Thenew archaeology and Syro-Palestinian archaeology of today haveadvantages and disadvantages. They have the advantages of staff whoare better equipped and trained, as well as educated volunteers whousually have genuine interest in their work. More important, theirconclusions have the advantage of being based on data that is morescientifically obtained and analyzed. Many of the digs run fieldschools modeled on the ones from the Gezer project (1964–1973),which trained hundreds of student volunteers. These are all good anduseful for both participants and their projects, but they have led tosignificant rises in the costs of an excavation. Thus, a typicalsix-week season is estimated now to cost in excess of one hundredthousand dollars. Since the new archaeology has led to a“secularization” of biblical archaeology and churches andseminaries have gradually stopped sponsoring these projects, thefunds have had to come increasingly from federal and public sourcesof support. The National Endowment for the Humanities (and privatedonors later) became the major source of funds in the 1970s.

Approachesto the Bible in Modern Archaeology

Thereis no doubt that the new archaeology has introduced many usefulscientific improvements in the field. (Of course, these scientificimprovements were embraced by both biblical and Syro-Palestinianarchaeologists in the 1970s, and the distinction between these twogroups has become largely imaginary.) At the same time, however, ithas brought new biases against the biblical text. The Bible, inDever’s view, was never intended as a historical document andshould be viewed with “considerable suspicion” forreconstructing the history of the ancient Near East. Otherarchaeologists in the field (and also historians) have an even morenegative attitude toward the Bible. However, it must be emphasizedthat all (or at least most) agree that the Bible has its role in thearchaeology of Syria-Palestine. The question has to do with how theBible should be used.

Maximalistand minimalist approaches.The two schools of thought that seem the loudest in the debate amongbiblical and/or Syro-Palestinian archaeologists are usually labeled“maximalist” and “minimalist.” (To theseKenneth A. Kitchen adds the label “factualist.”According to Kitchen, the agenda of a “factualist” isneither to prove nor to disprove any theory concerning the earlyhistory of Israel, but simply to examine the facts and let the dataspeak for itself.)

Themaximalist school has a strong view of the historical reliability ofScripture and emphasizes synergy between archaeology and biblicalstudies. Others consider this to be a naive approach to Scripture andan uncritical acceptance of the information that it tries tocommunicate. The maximalists follow the scholarship of W. F.Albright and his student John Bright, and they assume that the OTspeaks of historical realities. When seeking to reconstruct thehistory of ancient Israel, they readily and confidently refer to thebiblical record as a valid and significant source for their research.They are also confident that when all the data is in, a biblicalhistory of Israel (aided by archaeology) will exhibit a closecorrespondence with the real history of Israel.

Theminimalist school is generally skeptical concerning the historicalreliability of the biblical text. Many advocates of this approachargue that the OT was written primarily during the Hellenistic period(it certainly is postexilic), centuries after the events that itclaims to describe. A community around Jerusalem created thetraditions found in the Bible in order to give account for themselvesand their distinctive religious notions and practices. According tothis approach, any correlation between the Bible and thearchaeological record is suspect a priori. When there aretensions between biblical and extrabiblical records (includingarchaeology), the extrabiblical records are to be preferred asevidence, and the contradictions are usually emphasized to underminethe reliability of the Bible as a historical source.

Theminimalist movement has developed gradually. Although a century agothere were many who questioned the historicity of the first chaptersof Genesis, most accepted the essential historicity of thepatriarchs, the exodus from Egypt under Moses, the conquest of Canaanby Joshua, the historicity of David and Solomon, and the rest of theOT narrative. During the past forty years, however, serious doubt hasbeen cast on all of these events.

Thestance of the minimalists led to peculiar (and rarely settled)controversies over issues such as the legitimacy of reading “thehouse of David” in the Tel Dan inscription (discovered in1993), the Siloam Tunnel inscription (which overlaps with 2 Chron.32 and is traditionally ascribed to Hezekiah), the very existence ofJerusalem during the days of David and Solomon, and even theexistence of these two kings.

Afresh approach.Is there a way to move beyond the current state of the debate? Somebelieve that there is hope by using a fresh approach to biblicalarchaeology, one that follows in the footsteps of Lawrence Stager andPhilip King (see their book, Life in Biblical Israel  ).This approach does not try to reconstruct history or simplyilluminate the Bible; rather, it seeks to enter into the world of theancients to acquire a fuller understanding of Israelite society andits literary record through the combined use of artifacts, sociology,and ethnography. Textual and archaeological data are brought into ahistorical discourse by “selecting and interpreting themthrough the problematics of social history.” Thus, biblicalarchaeology in the older sense is making a comeback by hearkeningback to the integrative works of the nineteenth century, but withvast amounts of new data. This “new biblical archaeology”should not be driven by apologetic purposes and should not aim to“prove the truth of the Bible.” It should have moremodest and realistic goals, considering the limitations ofarchaeology (see below).

Evangelicalarchaeologists, confident in the truth of the Bible (which can standby itself despite its many attacks from within and without), shouldhave as their goal the understanding of the biblical world in itsgeographical, cultural, and historical setting. They should usearchaeology and linguistics to correlate biblical texts and ancientartifacts against the background of the historical and geographicalsetting. When historical questions are posed, the cumulative evidenceshould lead to probability and plausibility rather than a defensivequest for final proof. This attempt to follow historical probabilityvis-à-vis the Bible is different from setting out a prioriwith a defensive Bible-proving agenda.

Thisnew approach will not make the Scriptures say more than judiciousassessment of the evidence will allow (a problem that plagues someconservative interpreters), but neither will it cast undue skepticismon the Scriptures’ historical value (the problem of theminimalists). It endeavors to pay close attention both to theliterary nature and intentions of the biblical text and to thefragmentary nature of the archaeological record.

Thesenew biblical archaeologists do not set out again “to prove theBible.” Instead, they seek to situate the texts of the OT intheir historical and cultural contexts and to demonstrate howawareness of the extrabiblical world can open new doors into theBible. Their goals are more modest, not because of a lower view ofScripture, but rather because of a clearer understanding of thelimitations and fragmentary nature of archaeology despite itsconsiderable refinement in the recent decades.

TheLimitations of Archaeology

Archaeologyhas limitations because of the vast amount of time and area to becovered and because of the hazards of preservation. Objects of wood,leatherwork, basketry, papyrus, and cloth rarely survive, and metals(especially precious metals) were frequently recycled. It is alsoimportant to realize that no biblical site has ever been completelyexcavated, and most of the excavations tend to pay greater attentionto the major buildings (citadels, temples, palaces) rather than thehomes of the general population.

Onlyin recent years have accurate methods of stratification and recordingenabled comparisons to be made between sites, and the reliability ofsome foundational excavations in the Holy Land is rightly questionedby the finds from newer excavations (e.g., Megiddo, Gezer, and Hazorare being reexcavated in part to clarify and answer questions raisedby previous excavations and debates). This is understandable becausemost of the foundational excavations in the Holy Land did not haveaccess to the accurate methods of stratification, recording, andscientific analysis available today. Many useful artifacts andespecially organic objects were routinely discarded in the earlierexcavations.

Ingeneral, earlier levels of a site are more likely to have beendisturbed by the activities of later periods, and it was very commonfor older buildings (and sometimes even monumental inscriptions) tobe dismantled and the (stone) blocks reused for later buildings oreven roads. The objects that archaeologists discover survive and aremost often found by accident. Consequently, given the limitations andpitfalls of archaeology (especially the way it was done in theearliest part of the twentieth century), one must have realistic andmore modest expectations about what archaeology can recover, andrealize that the further one goes in time, the less archaeologicalinformation may be available for comparison and useful analysis. Addto this that some of the central characters of the Bible (e.g.,Abraham, Moses, most of the judges, Ezra) were not major players inthe world of their time, and that some important sites have neverbeen excavated (e.g., Damascus, Hebron), and it becomes clear thatthere are considerable reasons to have more realistic and modestexpectations about what archaeology can accomplish.

Therole and possibility of accurately interpreting archaeologicalremains should also be taken into consideration, especially sincethere are well-documented cases in which the interpretation of theexcavator has turned out to be false (e.g., the “DegeneratedAshtoreth Plaque” of R. A. S. Macalister from Gezer).Anyone who has ever participated in an archaeological excavation ledby a group of experts in the field can remember debates that tookplace among these experts, not only about the dating of variouspieces of pottery, but even about the role and dating of well-definedand visible monumental architecture. While this is understandable anddesirable, and many times leads to the refinement and corrections ofunwarranted early assumptions, the process shows the difficultyinherent in interpreting the fragmentary remains of a deadcivilization far removed from our times and settings.

MaterialRemains and Written Sources

Itis a sobering fact that archaeology cannot provide the basis forhistory. Material remains can reveal climate changes and theirimpact, sequences of human cultures and their products, traces ofdestruction and desertion, changes in building techniques and art.Nevertheless, the persons involved remain anonymous, their thoughts,motives and faith a mystery, and the specific events of their timeslargely unknown (e.g., the destruction by fire of Lachish IIcould not have been accurately dated and related without the biblicalreport in Jer. 34:7). It is the written documents (many timesrecovered through archaeology) that can reveal the names of kings andkingdoms, their dates and deeds, and the fruits of their thinking inliterature. It is the testimony of these texts, rightly evaluated,that can add the “flesh and features” to the “bones”archaeology discovers (Allan Millard).

Onthe other hand, the material remains of life (pottery, jewelry,tools, weapons, cultic objects, architecture, etc.) as recoveredthrough archaeology can bring color to the textual references.Nevertheless, the written sources are essential and provide the mostvaluable information for recovering the history and faith of anyancient nation. It is the duty of the biblical scholar andarchaeologist to interpret correctly the available data fromSyria-Palestine and to arrive at plausible explanations concerningthe biblical world. The combination of texts (biblical andextrabiblical), material culture (archaeology), geography, andhistory holds considerable promise to help scholars better define thecontext of Scripture.

Thereis no doubt that this approach to archaeology holds considerablepotential as it is generating more material than is possible for anyperson (or even school) to encompass. As one of the most quicklychanging social sciences today, both in theoretical advances and newdata, archaeology is and will be the source of new insights intobiblical life and times. It seems that the “archaeologicalrevolution” predicted by W. F. Albright is far from over;it probably has only begun.

Theevidence for this revolution from the evangelical field is visible invarious ways. The rest of this entry briefly presents some selectivearchaeological data that helps define the context and thatcomplements (since the writers of the Bible were selective in theirreporting), challenges, or confirms the narrative of the Bible. Thedata should help the interpreter of the Bible bridge thegeographical, temporal, and cultural gap that leads to the ancientwriter.

TheCannanite (Bronze) Age (3300–1200 BC)

EarlyBronze Age.Towns with mud-brick walls begin to appear in Canaan in the EarlyBronze Age I (before 3000 BC). Evidence of occupation in thethird millennium is found at Beth-yerah, Beth-shan, Gezer, Jerusalem,Jericho, Arad, Megiddo, and Ai, among others. There was a differencebetween the pottery of the north (Beth-yerah) and that of the south,while the most striking development was that of the fine “KhirbetKerak” ware.

MiddleBronze Age.About 2200 BC (Middle Bronze Age I) there arrived a distinctivenomadic people identified with the Amorites of the Bible (Num. 13:29;Josh. 5:1; 10:6). They had distinctive burial customs, pottery, andweapons that show connection with the city-states of Syria. It ismost likely that their kings included the Asiatic “ForeignRulers” (Hyksos) who conquered Egypt in the eighteenth centuryBC. This was a time of wealth and frequent warfare between cities. Itseems that the Middle Bronze Age was a time when seminomadic groups(including a group called “Habiru,” who are also found inthe Late Bronze Age) infiltrated the land between defended towns. Itis possible that the patriarchs were among these Habiru, whoinfiltrated mostly the hill country and the Negev. In fact, it isdemonstrable from a comparison with the eighteenth-century BC textsfrom Mari (on the Euphrates River) that the pastoral traditions ofGenesis fit the early second-millennium BC context much better thanlater periods.

Thetowns and houses of the Middle Bronze Age were violently destroyed inthe fifteenth century BC, most likely by the Egyptians, who expelledthe Hyksos. Despite the trade that seems to have continued with theeastern Mediterranean (Mycenaean pottery), the hill towns ofPalestine were now poorer and fewer than the coastal cities. Thissituation is clearly reflected in the Amarna letters between thekings of Canaan and Egypt. The major cities were reoccupied, but manyof them were destroyed later in the thirteenth century.

LateBronze Age.It is in the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC) that thebiblical account is usually challenged by the archaeologicaldiscoveries. Even if one accepts the reasonable interpretation thatJoshua burned only three cities (Jericho, Ai, Hazor) in his campaign(see Josh. 6:24; 8:28; 11:13), the evidence of destruction from bothJericho and Ai is highly questionable. Thus, while it is widelybelieved that Jericho was abandoned around 1325 BC, the fallen wallsonce thought to belong to this period were dated much earlier byKathleen Kenyon (Early Bronze). The evidence from Ai (et-Tell) iseven less promising, unless Bryan Wood is correct in hisidentification of Ai with Khirbet el-Maqatir.

Basedon the apparent lack of change in material culture during the LateBronze Age, mainstream archaeologists commonly classify theIsraelites as dissident Canaanites who moved into the hill country.

Althoughit cannot be conclusively demonstrated from archaeology that theIsraelites were not Canaanites but rather came to Canaan from theoutside, the mainstream interpretation has serious problems of itsown. There was clearly a new pattern of simple farming in the hills,characterized by four-room houses whose inhabitants used manycollared-rim jars, and there is an almost complete absence of pigbones (which usually are found in the Canaanite cities) in thehill-country sites. More important, there is strong evidence that theIsraelites were worshiping their own national God (YHWH) by the ninthcentury BC, in sharp contrast to the polytheistic religion of Canaan(as illuminated by the culture in neighboring Ugarit). The personalnames of individuals in the eighth and seventh centuries BC arealmost exclusively Yahwistic.

Anothervery significant change is the abandonment of the shrines in towns ofthe Late Bronze Age. Not a single site can be identified in whichworship continued from the Late Bronze Age well into the Iron Age (itseems that by 1000 BC the Canaanites disappeared as an entity in thearea occupied by Israel). It is highly unlikely that the Canaaniteswho moved from towns into the hill-country sites would have abandonedtheir divinities (whose need they must have felt greatly while facingthe uncertainties of the wilderness), and it is even more unlikelythat people who had come from different towns with different deitieswould have accepted almost universally a new patron deity of obscureprovenance. The continuity in material culture of a nation that wasto take over the homes and all the equipment of the Canaanites shouldnot be surprising in light of the commands of the Bible (Deut.6:10–11). The almost universal rise of the worship of the Godof Israel, and the mention of Israel as a group of people in theStela of Merneptah (c. 1208 BC), argue forcefully that theIsraelites were not really Canaanites.

TheIsraelite (Iron) Age (1200–586 BC)

Bythe twelfth century, the Philistine settlement of southwest Canaan isattested by a new type of pottery with Late Mycenaean affinities.This new type of pottery was found throughout Philistia, theShephelah, and as far north as Joppa. Wealthy and well-constructedCanaanite cities held out for at least another century (Beth-Shean,Gezer, and Megiddo?). The evidence for Israelites comes from thesmall villages throughout the hill country and Galilee.Traditionally, as mentioned above, they are recognized by theirfour-room houses, large number of storage pits for grain, largestorage jars with thick-collared rims, and preference for terracinghillsides for farming.

Archaeologically,it is very difficult to at­trib­ute the construction ofcities to any king of the united monarchy (but see the recentdiscovery below). Saul had a citadel at Gibeah (Tell el-Fûl),and the first fortification there has been attributed to him. Itshows the adoption of a new fortification system of casemate wall,characteristic of this period. Similar casemate walls have been foundat Shechem, Beth-shemesh, and Beit Mirsim (and later even in Moab). Asmall town at Megiddo, whose houses form a defensive ring around theperimeter of the mound, has been attributed to David.

Though1 Kings 9:15 reports how Solomon built up Hazor, Megiddo, andGezer, the dating of the six-chambered gates found in all of thesesites and the related walls is still being debated. A much morerecent excavation from Khirbat en-Nahas in Jordan has foundindustrial-scale production of copper in a region and at a time thatcorrelates well with the narrative about Solomon (see 1 Kings7:46).

Anothervery recent and impressive find comes from Khirbet Qeiyafa (mostlikely Shaaraim [Josh. 15:36; 1 Sam. 17:52; 1 Chron.4:31–32]). This site, located in the western part of the highShephelah (near Azekah), was recently excavated by Yosef Garfinkeland Saar Ganor of Hebrew University, Jerusalem. On the basis of fourburnt olive pits tested at Oxford University, the excavators datedthis fortified city to the time of David. They concluded that themassive construction of the city wall (which required two hundredthousand tons of stone) supports the existence of a centralizedpolitical organization, a state—a conclusion that hasfar-reaching implications for the disputed chronology of Iron Age IIA(1000–900 BC). They also found a five-line inscription,indicating that writing was practiced in the region. This inscriptionis important because it seems to be the longest proto-Canaaniteinscription ever found, and the earliest Hebrew inscription known todate.

TheHellenistic-Roman Period (332 BC and Following)

Herodthe Great (37–4 BC) was the ambitious ruler who carried throughmost of the grand building projects that still dot the Holy Landtoday. At Jerusalem, which is still being excavated, the massivewalls that he built for the platform of the temple are still visibletoday both above and below the ground. Other ruins associated withHerod have been found at Caesarea, Jericho, Herodium (nearBethlehem), Masada, and also in Jordan.

Oneof the most important inscriptions for NT studies (especially theGospels) was found by the Italian excavators of Caesarea. Theseexcavators found that the inscription refers to Pontius Pilate,prefect of Judea. Other inscriptions from Greece and Turkey areconnected with the events described in Acts and Paul’s letters.Thus, in Corinth a door inscription (“Synagogue of theHebrews”) may indicate the place where Paul preached (Acts18:4). Excavations there revealed a text naming Erastus as abenefactor. This may be the city treasurer of Rom. 16:23. Near Lystrainscriptions record the dedication to Zeus of a statue of Hermes bysome Lycaonians, and nearby was a stone altar for Zeus and Hermes.This explains the identification of Barnabas with Zeus (Jupiter) andPaul with Hermes (Mercury) in Acts 14:11–12.

Itis clear from the selective sample of data presented here that thefield of archaeology has contributed considerably to the context andunderstanding of the biblical world. All the signs and recentexcavations suggest that there are continuing and exciting prospectsto be found in the newer (biblical) archaeology.

Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remainsof past human life and activities. It can also be described as theprocedure by which ancient artifacts are recovered, identified, andinterpreted. Archaeology deals with both the prehistorical andhistorical periods and encompasses both written (epigraphical) andunwritten (artifactual) discoveries. Even though literary remains(inscriptions, ostraca [potsherds], seals) are typically the subjectof other disciplines, archaeological investigation usually isresponsible for their discovery. Without archaeology much of theavailable written evidence would have remained buried forever in theground. Unwritten materials include everything made by humans, suchas fortifications, pottery, tools, jewelry, and weapons.

Biblicalarchaeology more narrowly focuses on the material remains of Israeland its neighboring countries that relate to the biblical period andnarrative. For example, ancient texts recovered from sites such asMari, Ugarit, Ebla, and Amarna shed valuable light on the biblicalrecord and on the history and religion of the ancient Near East.Biblical archaeology may be understood as the process of correlatingarchaeological evidence with the biblical record. Archaeology and theBible are closely related because they inform each other. Thus, eventhough archaeology and biblical studies are independent disciplines,they are certainly interrelated.

TheHistory of Biblical Archaeology

Tounderstand better the meaning of biblical archaeology, it isnecessary to briefly trace its history. Before the 1800s little wasknown about the Bible’s background, despite its central role inthe religion and culture of the world, because the Bible was theprimary source for access to the history of ancient Israel and itsneighbors. There were few sources to which the Scripture historianscould appeal besides the apocryphal writings and the works ofJosephus, because the early Greek historians (Herodotus andThucydides) were of limited value, given their interest in the “majorplayers” of history.

Thediscovery of the Rosetta Stone (dated 196 BC) in 1799 and itsdecipherment in 1822 by J. F. Champollion opened wide the doorsto ancient Egypt’s history. Within twenty-five years, by thedecipherment of Akkadian cuneiform by Henry Rawlinson (1846), theworld had the key to reading and interpreting thousands of tabletsand monumental texts from ancient Babylonia, Assyria, and even theland of the Hittites. These two major developments allowed the voicesfrom the ancient world of the Bible to speak once more and encouragedhistorians to look at the Bible as supported by the background datacoming from the rest of the ancient Near East. As a result of thesedevelopments, a new interest was kindled in ancient Near Easterncultures and the material remains (realia) that they left behind,coupled with a renewed interest in the setting of the biblical text.

Initialexcavations of biblical sites.Thebeginnings of scientific exploration of Palestine can be traced to1838 when American Edward Robinson (geographer and explorer) aided bythe Arabist Eli Smith undertook a historic trip to the Holy Land andsucceeded in identifying over one hundred biblical sites, effectivelylaying the foundations for biblical archaeology and geography. Thisled to the establishment of the British Palestine Exploration Fund in1865 for the purpose of exploring Palestine systematically andscientifically, and to several of the geographic surveys of westernPalestine and Transjordan.

Thebeginning of major excavations of biblical sites was not far behind,and in 1890 William M. F. Petrie (a renowned Egyptologist then)initiated what is widely regarded as the first modern archaeologicalexcavation in the Holy Land. He excavated Tell el-Hesi(identification still uncertain) in the northern Negev, and his workunderlies archaeological inquiry in the Holy Land to this day. Morespecifically, Petrie laid the foundations of modern archaeology byhis application of stratigraphy and ceramic typology.

Stratigraphyis the technique of digging a tell (a cone-shaped mound that containsthe remains of successive human occupation over a long period oftime) layer by layer while carefully separating and recording thecontents of each occupational layer. This technique tries to untanglethese layers in the reverse order (the older layers of occupation arealways below the newer layers) of their deposition and to reconstructthe history of a site period by period.

Typologyis the technique of classifying artifacts based on their externalcharacteristics (shape, ware, and decoration). Pottery is consideredan accurate tool for dating the occupational layers of a tell, andceramic typology is the art of charting changes in local potterystyles. By analyzing the pottery lying within successive layers atHesi, Petrie was able to construct a relative chronological frameworkfor Palestine. To arrive at a more absolute chronology, theresearchers from Palestine usually need (especially in the earlierperiods) to correlate their findings with similar styles fromneighboring areas, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, where there areavailable written records and astronomically fixed dates.

BeforeWorld War I, the first and only American excavation in Palestinethat deserves mention is that of George A. Reisner and architectClarence S. Fisher between 1908 and 1910 at Sebastiyeh (biblicalSamaria). The rest are usually considered to have resembled “treasurehunts.” By the use of systematic digging and recording inPalestine, the Reisner-Fisher method, which was far morecomprehensive and meticulous than Petrie’s, greatly improvedPalestinian archaeology.

Thefirst golden age.The “golden age” of American excavation in Palestinefollowed a few decades later, after World War I in the 1920s and1930s. Numerous and well-financed archaeological digs started at thefollowing biblical sites: Ai, Bethel, Beth-shean, Beth-shemesh,Beth-zur, Debir, Gibeah, Jericho, Mizpah, Samaria, Shechem, andothers. All of these excavations, however, were overshadowed by thework of Orientalist W. F. Albright at Tell Beit Mirsim (identitystill disputed, but perhaps Debir).

Itwas Albright and those of the American school in Jerusalem (now theAlbright Institute of Archaeology) who dominated the scene in theseformative years. Albright refined Petrie’s methodology andintegrated very well archaeology, biblical research, and ancient NearEastern studies, thus establishing biblical (and Palestinian)archaeology as a discipline in its own right. He also envisioned an“archaeological revolution” that would open up the lands,peoples, and lost sites of the ancient Near East so that the Biblewould be better understood and also gain new credibility. Hecertainly was reacting against the spirit of his time, when steriledebates of textual and literary criticism (especially of theskeptical variety) were prevalent in both European and Americanliberalism, and this seems to have led some to believe thatarchaeology’s primary function was to “prove the Bibletrue.”

Thesecond golden age.A second “golden age” of biblical archaeology is usuallyconsidered to have arrived after World War II when variousforeign teams worked throughout the Middle East in cooperation withlocal archaeologists, a trend that continues today. The archaeologyof Palestine advanced rapidly, with significant improvements in thetechniques of digging and recording. The greatest influence onarchaeological method at this time belongs to Kathleen Kenyon(English excavator of Jericho [Tell es-Sultan]), whosestratigraphical method (known as the Wheeler-Kenyon method) is usedeven today by excavators, with modifications. Other importantarchaeologists who contributed significantly to the biblicalarchaeology movement are Yigael Yadin of Israel and G. E. Wrightof the United States.

Duringthe height of its prominence and promise, biblical archaeology becamean important component for the biblical theology movement and alsofor Christian apologetics (especially as represented by Joseph Freeof Wheaton College). In fact, one of the greatest theologians in thebiblical theology movement, G. E. Wright, was also Albright’sstudent. He conducted a major excavation at Tell Balath (biblicalShechem), following the Wheeler-Kenyon method and emphasizing potterychronology in the tradition of the Albright school. More important,Shechem was a training ground for many American archaeologists whereWright created a new school of field archaeology.

Thenew archaeology.In the 1960s, under the influence of the social and natural sciences,the “new archaeology” that developed tended to focus onthe comprehensive study of humans as species (and not on historicalissues). William G. Dever (a student and follower of G. E.Wright at the important Tel Gezer project) argued forcefully andsuccessfully for the “liberation” of Near Easternarchaeology from biblical studies and preferred the term (prevalenttoday in most American schools) “Syro-Palestinian archaeology.”Today, with very few exceptions (e.g., Harvard University), mostAmerican universities offer classes in the archaeology ofSyria-Palestine (this was apparently Albright’s old alternateterm for biblical archaeology), not in biblical archaeology. The nameof the popular magazine Biblical Archaeologist was also changed toAncient Near Eastern Archaeology, despite protests from many of itsreaders.

Thenew archaeology began with the realization in the 1960s that muchdata of potential significance has been overlooked, and perhaps evenvital evidence has been discarded. New questions and methodsdeveloped from the frustration that old questions have not beenanswered satisfactorily. The temporal and geographical horizons ofthe new archaeology broadened to include the Paleolithic period(c. 100,000 BC) through the Ottoman era (AD 1922), and attentionis now paid to the neglected periods of Judaism and earlyChristianity.

Moreimportant, the composition of the dig staff broadened considerably toinclude a much larger body of scientists to assist in answering thenew questions posed. Today, the field archaeologists (besideshistorians, linguists, and ceramic experts) are supported bygeologists, anthropologists, paleoethnobotanists, zoologists,climatologists, hydrologists, ethnographers, and, more recently,statisticians and computer experts. It is clear that the newarchaeology is done in a very interdisciplinary way. The Tell Hesbanand Khirbat en-Nahas excavations (both in Jordan) are good models ofthis type of interdisciplinary research. Bones, seeds, and otherorganic materials are now saved and carefully recorded to addressquestions related to economic strategies, social differentiation,diet, disease, and the like. Soil and pollen samples are taken,extensive regional and environmental surveys are carried out, andmaterial culture samples and artifacts are submitted forsophisticated analysis. It is ironic (according to Dever) that thisnew and “secular” archaeology, while demanding moreautonomy from the Bible, promises to contribute even more to biblicalstudies as it grows in precision and sophistication.

Thenew archaeology and Syro-Palestinian archaeology of today haveadvantages and disadvantages. They have the advantages of staff whoare better equipped and trained, as well as educated volunteers whousually have genuine interest in their work. More important, theirconclusions have the advantage of being based on data that is morescientifically obtained and analyzed. Many of the digs run fieldschools modeled on the ones from the Gezer project (1964–1973),which trained hundreds of student volunteers. These are all good anduseful for both participants and their projects, but they have led tosignificant rises in the costs of an excavation. Thus, a typicalsix-week season is estimated now to cost in excess of one hundredthousand dollars. Since the new archaeology has led to a“secularization” of biblical archaeology and churches andseminaries have gradually stopped sponsoring these projects, thefunds have had to come increasingly from federal and public sourcesof support. The National Endowment for the Humanities (and privatedonors later) became the major source of funds in the 1970s.

Approachesto the Bible in Modern Archaeology

Thereis no doubt that the new archaeology has introduced many usefulscientific improvements in the field. (Of course, these scientificimprovements were embraced by both biblical and Syro-Palestinianarchaeologists in the 1970s, and the distinction between these twogroups has become largely imaginary.) At the same time, however, ithas brought new biases against the biblical text. The Bible, inDever’s view, was never intended as a historical document andshould be viewed with “considerable suspicion” forreconstructing the history of the ancient Near East. Otherarchaeologists in the field (and also historians) have an even morenegative attitude toward the Bible. However, it must be emphasizedthat all (or at least most) agree that the Bible has its role in thearchaeology of Syria-Palestine. The question has to do with how theBible should be used.

Maximalistand minimalist approaches.The two schools of thought that seem the loudest in the debate amongbiblical and/or Syro-Palestinian archaeologists are usually labeled“maximalist” and “minimalist.” (To theseKenneth A. Kitchen adds the label “factualist.”According to Kitchen, the agenda of a “factualist” isneither to prove nor to disprove any theory concerning the earlyhistory of Israel, but simply to examine the facts and let the dataspeak for itself.)

Themaximalist school has a strong view of the historical reliability ofScripture and emphasizes synergy between archaeology and biblicalstudies. Others consider this to be a naive approach to Scripture andan uncritical acceptance of the information that it tries tocommunicate. The maximalists follow the scholarship of W. F.Albright and his student John Bright, and they assume that the OTspeaks of historical realities. When seeking to reconstruct thehistory of ancient Israel, they readily and confidently refer to thebiblical record as a valid and significant source for their research.They are also confident that when all the data is in, a biblicalhistory of Israel (aided by archaeology) will exhibit a closecorrespondence with the real history of Israel.

Theminimalist school is generally skeptical concerning the historicalreliability of the biblical text. Many advocates of this approachargue that the OT was written primarily during the Hellenistic period(it certainly is postexilic), centuries after the events that itclaims to describe. A community around Jerusalem created thetraditions found in the Bible in order to give account for themselvesand their distinctive religious notions and practices. According tothis approach, any correlation between the Bible and thearchaeological record is suspect a priori. When there aretensions between biblical and extrabiblical records (includingarchaeology), the extrabiblical records are to be preferred asevidence, and the contradictions are usually emphasized to underminethe reliability of the Bible as a historical source.

Theminimalist movement has developed gradually. Although a century agothere were many who questioned the historicity of the first chaptersof Genesis, most accepted the essential historicity of thepatriarchs, the exodus from Egypt under Moses, the conquest of Canaanby Joshua, the historicity of David and Solomon, and the rest of theOT narrative. During the past forty years, however, serious doubt hasbeen cast on all of these events.

Thestance of the minimalists led to peculiar (and rarely settled)controversies over issues such as the legitimacy of reading “thehouse of David” in the Tel Dan inscription (discovered in1993), the Siloam Tunnel inscription (which overlaps with 2 Chron.32 and is traditionally ascribed to Hezekiah), the very existence ofJerusalem during the days of David and Solomon, and even theexistence of these two kings.

Afresh approach.Is there a way to move beyond the current state of the debate? Somebelieve that there is hope by using a fresh approach to biblicalarchaeology, one that follows in the footsteps of Lawrence Stager andPhilip King (see their book, Life in Biblical Israel  ).This approach does not try to reconstruct history or simplyilluminate the Bible; rather, it seeks to enter into the world of theancients to acquire a fuller understanding of Israelite society andits literary record through the combined use of artifacts, sociology,and ethnography. Textual and archaeological data are brought into ahistorical discourse by “selecting and interpreting themthrough the problematics of social history.” Thus, biblicalarchaeology in the older sense is making a comeback by hearkeningback to the integrative works of the nineteenth century, but withvast amounts of new data. This “new biblical archaeology”should not be driven by apologetic purposes and should not aim to“prove the truth of the Bible.” It should have moremodest and realistic goals, considering the limitations ofarchaeology (see below).

Evangelicalarchaeologists, confident in the truth of the Bible (which can standby itself despite its many attacks from within and without), shouldhave as their goal the understanding of the biblical world in itsgeographical, cultural, and historical setting. They should usearchaeology and linguistics to correlate biblical texts and ancientartifacts against the background of the historical and geographicalsetting. When historical questions are posed, the cumulative evidenceshould lead to probability and plausibility rather than a defensivequest for final proof. This attempt to follow historical probabilityvis-à-vis the Bible is different from setting out a prioriwith a defensive Bible-proving agenda.

Thisnew approach will not make the Scriptures say more than judiciousassessment of the evidence will allow (a problem that plagues someconservative interpreters), but neither will it cast undue skepticismon the Scriptures’ historical value (the problem of theminimalists). It endeavors to pay close attention both to theliterary nature and intentions of the biblical text and to thefragmentary nature of the archaeological record.

Thesenew biblical archaeologists do not set out again “to prove theBible.” Instead, they seek to situate the texts of the OT intheir historical and cultural contexts and to demonstrate howawareness of the extrabiblical world can open new doors into theBible. Their goals are more modest, not because of a lower view ofScripture, but rather because of a clearer understanding of thelimitations and fragmentary nature of archaeology despite itsconsiderable refinement in the recent decades.

TheLimitations of Archaeology

Archaeologyhas limitations because of the vast amount of time and area to becovered and because of the hazards of preservation. Objects of wood,leatherwork, basketry, papyrus, and cloth rarely survive, and metals(especially precious metals) were frequently recycled. It is alsoimportant to realize that no biblical site has ever been completelyexcavated, and most of the excavations tend to pay greater attentionto the major buildings (citadels, temples, palaces) rather than thehomes of the general population.

Onlyin recent years have accurate methods of stratification and recordingenabled comparisons to be made between sites, and the reliability ofsome foundational excavations in the Holy Land is rightly questionedby the finds from newer excavations (e.g., Megiddo, Gezer, and Hazorare being reexcavated in part to clarify and answer questions raisedby previous excavations and debates). This is understandable becausemost of the foundational excavations in the Holy Land did not haveaccess to the accurate methods of stratification, recording, andscientific analysis available today. Many useful artifacts andespecially organic objects were routinely discarded in the earlierexcavations.

Ingeneral, earlier levels of a site are more likely to have beendisturbed by the activities of later periods, and it was very commonfor older buildings (and sometimes even monumental inscriptions) tobe dismantled and the (stone) blocks reused for later buildings oreven roads. The objects that archaeologists discover survive and aremost often found by accident. Consequently, given the limitations andpitfalls of archaeology (especially the way it was done in theearliest part of the twentieth century), one must have realistic andmore modest expectations about what archaeology can recover, andrealize that the further one goes in time, the less archaeologicalinformation may be available for comparison and useful analysis. Addto this that some of the central characters of the Bible (e.g.,Abraham, Moses, most of the judges, Ezra) were not major players inthe world of their time, and that some important sites have neverbeen excavated (e.g., Damascus, Hebron), and it becomes clear thatthere are considerable reasons to have more realistic and modestexpectations about what archaeology can accomplish.

Therole and possibility of accurately interpreting archaeologicalremains should also be taken into consideration, especially sincethere are well-documented cases in which the interpretation of theexcavator has turned out to be false (e.g., the “DegeneratedAshtoreth Plaque” of R. A. S. Macalister from Gezer).Anyone who has ever participated in an archaeological excavation ledby a group of experts in the field can remember debates that tookplace among these experts, not only about the dating of variouspieces of pottery, but even about the role and dating of well-definedand visible monumental architecture. While this is understandable anddesirable, and many times leads to the refinement and corrections ofunwarranted early assumptions, the process shows the difficultyinherent in interpreting the fragmentary remains of a deadcivilization far removed from our times and settings.

MaterialRemains and Written Sources

Itis a sobering fact that archaeology cannot provide the basis forhistory. Material remains can reveal climate changes and theirimpact, sequences of human cultures and their products, traces ofdestruction and desertion, changes in building techniques and art.Nevertheless, the persons involved remain anonymous, their thoughts,motives and faith a mystery, and the specific events of their timeslargely unknown (e.g., the destruction by fire of Lachish IIcould not have been accurately dated and related without the biblicalreport in Jer. 34:7). It is the written documents (many timesrecovered through archaeology) that can reveal the names of kings andkingdoms, their dates and deeds, and the fruits of their thinking inliterature. It is the testimony of these texts, rightly evaluated,that can add the “flesh and features” to the “bones”archaeology discovers (Allan Millard).

Onthe other hand, the material remains of life (pottery, jewelry,tools, weapons, cultic objects, architecture, etc.) as recoveredthrough archaeology can bring color to the textual references.Nevertheless, the written sources are essential and provide the mostvaluable information for recovering the history and faith of anyancient nation. It is the duty of the biblical scholar andarchaeologist to interpret correctly the available data fromSyria-Palestine and to arrive at plausible explanations concerningthe biblical world. The combination of texts (biblical andextrabiblical), material culture (archaeology), geography, andhistory holds considerable promise to help scholars better define thecontext of Scripture.

Thereis no doubt that this approach to archaeology holds considerablepotential as it is generating more material than is possible for anyperson (or even school) to encompass. As one of the most quicklychanging social sciences today, both in theoretical advances and newdata, archaeology is and will be the source of new insights intobiblical life and times. It seems that the “archaeologicalrevolution” predicted by W. F. Albright is far from over;it probably has only begun.

Theevidence for this revolution from the evangelical field is visible invarious ways. The rest of this entry briefly presents some selectivearchaeological data that helps define the context and thatcomplements (since the writers of the Bible were selective in theirreporting), challenges, or confirms the narrative of the Bible. Thedata should help the interpreter of the Bible bridge thegeographical, temporal, and cultural gap that leads to the ancientwriter.

TheCannanite (Bronze) Age (3300–1200 BC)

EarlyBronze Age.Towns with mud-brick walls begin to appear in Canaan in the EarlyBronze Age I (before 3000 BC). Evidence of occupation in thethird millennium is found at Beth-yerah, Beth-shan, Gezer, Jerusalem,Jericho, Arad, Megiddo, and Ai, among others. There was a differencebetween the pottery of the north (Beth-yerah) and that of the south,while the most striking development was that of the fine “KhirbetKerak” ware.

MiddleBronze Age.About 2200 BC (Middle Bronze Age I) there arrived a distinctivenomadic people identified with the Amorites of the Bible (Num. 13:29;Josh. 5:1; 10:6). They had distinctive burial customs, pottery, andweapons that show connection with the city-states of Syria. It ismost likely that their kings included the Asiatic “ForeignRulers” (Hyksos) who conquered Egypt in the eighteenth centuryBC. This was a time of wealth and frequent warfare between cities. Itseems that the Middle Bronze Age was a time when seminomadic groups(including a group called “Habiru,” who are also found inthe Late Bronze Age) infiltrated the land between defended towns. Itis possible that the patriarchs were among these Habiru, whoinfiltrated mostly the hill country and the Negev. In fact, it isdemonstrable from a comparison with the eighteenth-century BC textsfrom Mari (on the Euphrates River) that the pastoral traditions ofGenesis fit the early second-millennium BC context much better thanlater periods.

Thetowns and houses of the Middle Bronze Age were violently destroyed inthe fifteenth century BC, most likely by the Egyptians, who expelledthe Hyksos. Despite the trade that seems to have continued with theeastern Mediterranean (Mycenaean pottery), the hill towns ofPalestine were now poorer and fewer than the coastal cities. Thissituation is clearly reflected in the Amarna letters between thekings of Canaan and Egypt. The major cities were reoccupied, but manyof them were destroyed later in the thirteenth century.

LateBronze Age.It is in the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC) that thebiblical account is usually challenged by the archaeologicaldiscoveries. Even if one accepts the reasonable interpretation thatJoshua burned only three cities (Jericho, Ai, Hazor) in his campaign(see Josh. 6:24; 8:28; 11:13), the evidence of destruction from bothJericho and Ai is highly questionable. Thus, while it is widelybelieved that Jericho was abandoned around 1325 BC, the fallen wallsonce thought to belong to this period were dated much earlier byKathleen Kenyon (Early Bronze). The evidence from Ai (et-Tell) iseven less promising, unless Bryan Wood is correct in hisidentification of Ai with Khirbet el-Maqatir.

Basedon the apparent lack of change in material culture during the LateBronze Age, mainstream archaeologists commonly classify theIsraelites as dissident Canaanites who moved into the hill country.

Althoughit cannot be conclusively demonstrated from archaeology that theIsraelites were not Canaanites but rather came to Canaan from theoutside, the mainstream interpretation has serious problems of itsown. There was clearly a new pattern of simple farming in the hills,characterized by four-room houses whose inhabitants used manycollared-rim jars, and there is an almost complete absence of pigbones (which usually are found in the Canaanite cities) in thehill-country sites. More important, there is strong evidence that theIsraelites were worshiping their own national God (YHWH) by the ninthcentury BC, in sharp contrast to the polytheistic religion of Canaan(as illuminated by the culture in neighboring Ugarit). The personalnames of individuals in the eighth and seventh centuries BC arealmost exclusively Yahwistic.

Anothervery significant change is the abandonment of the shrines in towns ofthe Late Bronze Age. Not a single site can be identified in whichworship continued from the Late Bronze Age well into the Iron Age (itseems that by 1000 BC the Canaanites disappeared as an entity in thearea occupied by Israel). It is highly unlikely that the Canaaniteswho moved from towns into the hill-country sites would have abandonedtheir divinities (whose need they must have felt greatly while facingthe uncertainties of the wilderness), and it is even more unlikelythat people who had come from different towns with different deitieswould have accepted almost universally a new patron deity of obscureprovenance. The continuity in material culture of a nation that wasto take over the homes and all the equipment of the Canaanites shouldnot be surprising in light of the commands of the Bible (Deut.6:10–11). The almost universal rise of the worship of the Godof Israel, and the mention of Israel as a group of people in theStela of Merneptah (c. 1208 BC), argue forcefully that theIsraelites were not really Canaanites.

TheIsraelite (Iron) Age (1200–586 BC)

Bythe twelfth century, the Philistine settlement of southwest Canaan isattested by a new type of pottery with Late Mycenaean affinities.This new type of pottery was found throughout Philistia, theShephelah, and as far north as Joppa. Wealthy and well-constructedCanaanite cities held out for at least another century (Beth-Shean,Gezer, and Megiddo?). The evidence for Israelites comes from thesmall villages throughout the hill country and Galilee.Traditionally, as mentioned above, they are recognized by theirfour-room houses, large number of storage pits for grain, largestorage jars with thick-collared rims, and preference for terracinghillsides for farming.

Archaeologically,it is very difficult to at­trib­ute the construction ofcities to any king of the united monarchy (but see the recentdiscovery below). Saul had a citadel at Gibeah (Tell el-Fûl),and the first fortification there has been attributed to him. Itshows the adoption of a new fortification system of casemate wall,characteristic of this period. Similar casemate walls have been foundat Shechem, Beth-shemesh, and Beit Mirsim (and later even in Moab). Asmall town at Megiddo, whose houses form a defensive ring around theperimeter of the mound, has been attributed to David.

Though1 Kings 9:15 reports how Solomon built up Hazor, Megiddo, andGezer, the dating of the six-chambered gates found in all of thesesites and the related walls is still being debated. A much morerecent excavation from Khirbat en-Nahas in Jordan has foundindustrial-scale production of copper in a region and at a time thatcorrelates well with the narrative about Solomon (see 1 Kings7:46).

Anothervery recent and impressive find comes from Khirbet Qeiyafa (mostlikely Shaaraim [Josh. 15:36; 1 Sam. 17:52; 1 Chron.4:31–32]). This site, located in the western part of the highShephelah (near Azekah), was recently excavated by Yosef Garfinkeland Saar Ganor of Hebrew University, Jerusalem. On the basis of fourburnt olive pits tested at Oxford University, the excavators datedthis fortified city to the time of David. They concluded that themassive construction of the city wall (which required two hundredthousand tons of stone) supports the existence of a centralizedpolitical organization, a state—a conclusion that hasfar-reaching implications for the disputed chronology of Iron Age IIA(1000–900 BC). They also found a five-line inscription,indicating that writing was practiced in the region. This inscriptionis important because it seems to be the longest proto-Canaaniteinscription ever found, and the earliest Hebrew inscription known todate.

TheHellenistic-Roman Period (332 BC and Following)

Herodthe Great (37–4 BC) was the ambitious ruler who carried throughmost of the grand building projects that still dot the Holy Landtoday. At Jerusalem, which is still being excavated, the massivewalls that he built for the platform of the temple are still visibletoday both above and below the ground. Other ruins associated withHerod have been found at Caesarea, Jericho, Herodium (nearBethlehem), Masada, and also in Jordan.

Oneof the most important inscriptions for NT studies (especially theGospels) was found by the Italian excavators of Caesarea. Theseexcavators found that the inscription refers to Pontius Pilate,prefect of Judea. Other inscriptions from Greece and Turkey areconnected with the events described in Acts and Paul’s letters.Thus, in Corinth a door inscription (“Synagogue of theHebrews”) may indicate the place where Paul preached (Acts18:4). Excavations there revealed a text naming Erastus as abenefactor. This may be the city treasurer of Rom. 16:23. Near Lystrainscriptions record the dedication to Zeus of a statue of Hermes bysome Lycaonians, and nearby was a stone altar for Zeus and Hermes.This explains the identification of Barnabas with Zeus (Jupiter) andPaul with Hermes (Mercury) in Acts 14:11–12.

Itis clear from the selective sample of data presented here that thefield of archaeology has contributed considerably to the context andunderstanding of the biblical world. All the signs and recentexcavations suggest that there are continuing and exciting prospectsto be found in the newer (biblical) archaeology.

Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remainsof past human life and activities. It can also be described as theprocedure by which ancient artifacts are recovered, identified, andinterpreted. Archaeology deals with both the prehistorical andhistorical periods and encompasses both written (epigraphical) andunwritten (artifactual) discoveries. Even though literary remains(inscriptions, ostraca [potsherds], seals) are typically the subjectof other disciplines, archaeological investigation usually isresponsible for their discovery. Without archaeology much of theavailable written evidence would have remained buried forever in theground. Unwritten materials include everything made by humans, suchas fortifications, pottery, tools, jewelry, and weapons.

Biblicalarchaeology more narrowly focuses on the material remains of Israeland its neighboring countries that relate to the biblical period andnarrative. For example, ancient texts recovered from sites such asMari, Ugarit, Ebla, and Amarna shed valuable light on the biblicalrecord and on the history and religion of the ancient Near East.Biblical archaeology may be understood as the process of correlatingarchaeological evidence with the biblical record. Archaeology and theBible are closely related because they inform each other. Thus, eventhough archaeology and biblical studies are independent disciplines,they are certainly interrelated.

TheHistory of Biblical Archaeology

Tounderstand better the meaning of biblical archaeology, it isnecessary to briefly trace its history. Before the 1800s little wasknown about the Bible’s background, despite its central role inthe religion and culture of the world, because the Bible was theprimary source for access to the history of ancient Israel and itsneighbors. There were few sources to which the Scripture historianscould appeal besides the apocryphal writings and the works ofJosephus, because the early Greek historians (Herodotus andThucydides) were of limited value, given their interest in the “majorplayers” of history.

Thediscovery of the Rosetta Stone (dated 196 BC) in 1799 and itsdecipherment in 1822 by J. F. Champollion opened wide the doorsto ancient Egypt’s history. Within twenty-five years, by thedecipherment of Akkadian cuneiform by Henry Rawlinson (1846), theworld had the key to reading and interpreting thousands of tabletsand monumental texts from ancient Babylonia, Assyria, and even theland of the Hittites. These two major developments allowed the voicesfrom the ancient world of the Bible to speak once more and encouragedhistorians to look at the Bible as supported by the background datacoming from the rest of the ancient Near East. As a result of thesedevelopments, a new interest was kindled in ancient Near Easterncultures and the material remains (realia) that they left behind,coupled with a renewed interest in the setting of the biblical text.

Initialexcavations of biblical sites.Thebeginnings of scientific exploration of Palestine can be traced to1838 when American Edward Robinson (geographer and explorer) aided bythe Arabist Eli Smith undertook a historic trip to the Holy Land andsucceeded in identifying over one hundred biblical sites, effectivelylaying the foundations for biblical archaeology and geography. Thisled to the establishment of the British Palestine Exploration Fund in1865 for the purpose of exploring Palestine systematically andscientifically, and to several of the geographic surveys of westernPalestine and Transjordan.

Thebeginning of major excavations of biblical sites was not far behind,and in 1890 William M. F. Petrie (a renowned Egyptologist then)initiated what is widely regarded as the first modern archaeologicalexcavation in the Holy Land. He excavated Tell el-Hesi(identification still uncertain) in the northern Negev, and his workunderlies archaeological inquiry in the Holy Land to this day. Morespecifically, Petrie laid the foundations of modern archaeology byhis application of stratigraphy and ceramic typology.

Stratigraphyis the technique of digging a tell (a cone-shaped mound that containsthe remains of successive human occupation over a long period oftime) layer by layer while carefully separating and recording thecontents of each occupational layer. This technique tries to untanglethese layers in the reverse order (the older layers of occupation arealways below the newer layers) of their deposition and to reconstructthe history of a site period by period.

Typologyis the technique of classifying artifacts based on their externalcharacteristics (shape, ware, and decoration). Pottery is consideredan accurate tool for dating the occupational layers of a tell, andceramic typology is the art of charting changes in local potterystyles. By analyzing the pottery lying within successive layers atHesi, Petrie was able to construct a relative chronological frameworkfor Palestine. To arrive at a more absolute chronology, theresearchers from Palestine usually need (especially in the earlierperiods) to correlate their findings with similar styles fromneighboring areas, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, where there areavailable written records and astronomically fixed dates.

BeforeWorld War I, the first and only American excavation in Palestinethat deserves mention is that of George A. Reisner and architectClarence S. Fisher between 1908 and 1910 at Sebastiyeh (biblicalSamaria). The rest are usually considered to have resembled “treasurehunts.” By the use of systematic digging and recording inPalestine, the Reisner-Fisher method, which was far morecomprehensive and meticulous than Petrie’s, greatly improvedPalestinian archaeology.

Thefirst golden age.The “golden age” of American excavation in Palestinefollowed a few decades later, after World War I in the 1920s and1930s. Numerous and well-financed archaeological digs started at thefollowing biblical sites: Ai, Bethel, Beth-shean, Beth-shemesh,Beth-zur, Debir, Gibeah, Jericho, Mizpah, Samaria, Shechem, andothers. All of these excavations, however, were overshadowed by thework of Orientalist W. F. Albright at Tell Beit Mirsim (identitystill disputed, but perhaps Debir).

Itwas Albright and those of the American school in Jerusalem (now theAlbright Institute of Archaeology) who dominated the scene in theseformative years. Albright refined Petrie’s methodology andintegrated very well archaeology, biblical research, and ancient NearEastern studies, thus establishing biblical (and Palestinian)archaeology as a discipline in its own right. He also envisioned an“archaeological revolution” that would open up the lands,peoples, and lost sites of the ancient Near East so that the Biblewould be better understood and also gain new credibility. Hecertainly was reacting against the spirit of his time, when steriledebates of textual and literary criticism (especially of theskeptical variety) were prevalent in both European and Americanliberalism, and this seems to have led some to believe thatarchaeology’s primary function was to “prove the Bibletrue.”

Thesecond golden age.A second “golden age” of biblical archaeology is usuallyconsidered to have arrived after World War II when variousforeign teams worked throughout the Middle East in cooperation withlocal archaeologists, a trend that continues today. The archaeologyof Palestine advanced rapidly, with significant improvements in thetechniques of digging and recording. The greatest influence onarchaeological method at this time belongs to Kathleen Kenyon(English excavator of Jericho [Tell es-Sultan]), whosestratigraphical method (known as the Wheeler-Kenyon method) is usedeven today by excavators, with modifications. Other importantarchaeologists who contributed significantly to the biblicalarchaeology movement are Yigael Yadin of Israel and G. E. Wrightof the United States.

Duringthe height of its prominence and promise, biblical archaeology becamean important component for the biblical theology movement and alsofor Christian apologetics (especially as represented by Joseph Freeof Wheaton College). In fact, one of the greatest theologians in thebiblical theology movement, G. E. Wright, was also Albright’sstudent. He conducted a major excavation at Tell Balath (biblicalShechem), following the Wheeler-Kenyon method and emphasizing potterychronology in the tradition of the Albright school. More important,Shechem was a training ground for many American archaeologists whereWright created a new school of field archaeology.

Thenew archaeology.In the 1960s, under the influence of the social and natural sciences,the “new archaeology” that developed tended to focus onthe comprehensive study of humans as species (and not on historicalissues). William G. Dever (a student and follower of G. E.Wright at the important Tel Gezer project) argued forcefully andsuccessfully for the “liberation” of Near Easternarchaeology from biblical studies and preferred the term (prevalenttoday in most American schools) “Syro-Palestinian archaeology.”Today, with very few exceptions (e.g., Harvard University), mostAmerican universities offer classes in the archaeology ofSyria-Palestine (this was apparently Albright’s old alternateterm for biblical archaeology), not in biblical archaeology. The nameof the popular magazine Biblical Archaeologist was also changed toAncient Near Eastern Archaeology, despite protests from many of itsreaders.

Thenew archaeology began with the realization in the 1960s that muchdata of potential significance has been overlooked, and perhaps evenvital evidence has been discarded. New questions and methodsdeveloped from the frustration that old questions have not beenanswered satisfactorily. The temporal and geographical horizons ofthe new archaeology broadened to include the Paleolithic period(c. 100,000 BC) through the Ottoman era (AD 1922), and attentionis now paid to the neglected periods of Judaism and earlyChristianity.

Moreimportant, the composition of the dig staff broadened considerably toinclude a much larger body of scientists to assist in answering thenew questions posed. Today, the field archaeologists (besideshistorians, linguists, and ceramic experts) are supported bygeologists, anthropologists, paleoethnobotanists, zoologists,climatologists, hydrologists, ethnographers, and, more recently,statisticians and computer experts. It is clear that the newarchaeology is done in a very interdisciplinary way. The Tell Hesbanand Khirbat en-Nahas excavations (both in Jordan) are good models ofthis type of interdisciplinary research. Bones, seeds, and otherorganic materials are now saved and carefully recorded to addressquestions related to economic strategies, social differentiation,diet, disease, and the like. Soil and pollen samples are taken,extensive regional and environmental surveys are carried out, andmaterial culture samples and artifacts are submitted forsophisticated analysis. It is ironic (according to Dever) that thisnew and “secular” archaeology, while demanding moreautonomy from the Bible, promises to contribute even more to biblicalstudies as it grows in precision and sophistication.

Thenew archaeology and Syro-Palestinian archaeology of today haveadvantages and disadvantages. They have the advantages of staff whoare better equipped and trained, as well as educated volunteers whousually have genuine interest in their work. More important, theirconclusions have the advantage of being based on data that is morescientifically obtained and analyzed. Many of the digs run fieldschools modeled on the ones from the Gezer project (1964–1973),which trained hundreds of student volunteers. These are all good anduseful for both participants and their projects, but they have led tosignificant rises in the costs of an excavation. Thus, a typicalsix-week season is estimated now to cost in excess of one hundredthousand dollars. Since the new archaeology has led to a“secularization” of biblical archaeology and churches andseminaries have gradually stopped sponsoring these projects, thefunds have had to come increasingly from federal and public sourcesof support. The National Endowment for the Humanities (and privatedonors later) became the major source of funds in the 1970s.

Approachesto the Bible in Modern Archaeology

Thereis no doubt that the new archaeology has introduced many usefulscientific improvements in the field. (Of course, these scientificimprovements were embraced by both biblical and Syro-Palestinianarchaeologists in the 1970s, and the distinction between these twogroups has become largely imaginary.) At the same time, however, ithas brought new biases against the biblical text. The Bible, inDever’s view, was never intended as a historical document andshould be viewed with “considerable suspicion” forreconstructing the history of the ancient Near East. Otherarchaeologists in the field (and also historians) have an even morenegative attitude toward the Bible. However, it must be emphasizedthat all (or at least most) agree that the Bible has its role in thearchaeology of Syria-Palestine. The question has to do with how theBible should be used.

Maximalistand minimalist approaches.The two schools of thought that seem the loudest in the debate amongbiblical and/or Syro-Palestinian archaeologists are usually labeled“maximalist” and “minimalist.” (To theseKenneth A. Kitchen adds the label “factualist.”According to Kitchen, the agenda of a “factualist” isneither to prove nor to disprove any theory concerning the earlyhistory of Israel, but simply to examine the facts and let the dataspeak for itself.)

Themaximalist school has a strong view of the historical reliability ofScripture and emphasizes synergy between archaeology and biblicalstudies. Others consider this to be a naive approach to Scripture andan uncritical acceptance of the information that it tries tocommunicate. The maximalists follow the scholarship of W. F.Albright and his student John Bright, and they assume that the OTspeaks of historical realities. When seeking to reconstruct thehistory of ancient Israel, they readily and confidently refer to thebiblical record as a valid and significant source for their research.They are also confident that when all the data is in, a biblicalhistory of Israel (aided by archaeology) will exhibit a closecorrespondence with the real history of Israel.

Theminimalist school is generally skeptical concerning the historicalreliability of the biblical text. Many advocates of this approachargue that the OT was written primarily during the Hellenistic period(it certainly is postexilic), centuries after the events that itclaims to describe. A community around Jerusalem created thetraditions found in the Bible in order to give account for themselvesand their distinctive religious notions and practices. According tothis approach, any correlation between the Bible and thearchaeological record is suspect a priori. When there aretensions between biblical and extrabiblical records (includingarchaeology), the extrabiblical records are to be preferred asevidence, and the contradictions are usually emphasized to underminethe reliability of the Bible as a historical source.

Theminimalist movement has developed gradually. Although a century agothere were many who questioned the historicity of the first chaptersof Genesis, most accepted the essential historicity of thepatriarchs, the exodus from Egypt under Moses, the conquest of Canaanby Joshua, the historicity of David and Solomon, and the rest of theOT narrative. During the past forty years, however, serious doubt hasbeen cast on all of these events.

Thestance of the minimalists led to peculiar (and rarely settled)controversies over issues such as the legitimacy of reading “thehouse of David” in the Tel Dan inscription (discovered in1993), the Siloam Tunnel inscription (which overlaps with 2 Chron.32 and is traditionally ascribed to Hezekiah), the very existence ofJerusalem during the days of David and Solomon, and even theexistence of these two kings.

Afresh approach.Is there a way to move beyond the current state of the debate? Somebelieve that there is hope by using a fresh approach to biblicalarchaeology, one that follows in the footsteps of Lawrence Stager andPhilip King (see their book, Life in Biblical Israel  ).This approach does not try to reconstruct history or simplyilluminate the Bible; rather, it seeks to enter into the world of theancients to acquire a fuller understanding of Israelite society andits literary record through the combined use of artifacts, sociology,and ethnography. Textual and archaeological data are brought into ahistorical discourse by “selecting and interpreting themthrough the problematics of social history.” Thus, biblicalarchaeology in the older sense is making a comeback by hearkeningback to the integrative works of the nineteenth century, but withvast amounts of new data. This “new biblical archaeology”should not be driven by apologetic purposes and should not aim to“prove the truth of the Bible.” It should have moremodest and realistic goals, considering the limitations ofarchaeology (see below).

Evangelicalarchaeologists, confident in the truth of the Bible (which can standby itself despite its many attacks from within and without), shouldhave as their goal the understanding of the biblical world in itsgeographical, cultural, and historical setting. They should usearchaeology and linguistics to correlate biblical texts and ancientartifacts against the background of the historical and geographicalsetting. When historical questions are posed, the cumulative evidenceshould lead to probability and plausibility rather than a defensivequest for final proof. This attempt to follow historical probabilityvis-à-vis the Bible is different from setting out a prioriwith a defensive Bible-proving agenda.

Thisnew approach will not make the Scriptures say more than judiciousassessment of the evidence will allow (a problem that plagues someconservative interpreters), but neither will it cast undue skepticismon the Scriptures’ historical value (the problem of theminimalists). It endeavors to pay close attention both to theliterary nature and intentions of the biblical text and to thefragmentary nature of the archaeological record.

Thesenew biblical archaeologists do not set out again “to prove theBible.” Instead, they seek to situate the texts of the OT intheir historical and cultural contexts and to demonstrate howawareness of the extrabiblical world can open new doors into theBible. Their goals are more modest, not because of a lower view ofScripture, but rather because of a clearer understanding of thelimitations and fragmentary nature of archaeology despite itsconsiderable refinement in the recent decades.

TheLimitations of Archaeology

Archaeologyhas limitations because of the vast amount of time and area to becovered and because of the hazards of preservation. Objects of wood,leatherwork, basketry, papyrus, and cloth rarely survive, and metals(especially precious metals) were frequently recycled. It is alsoimportant to realize that no biblical site has ever been completelyexcavated, and most of the excavations tend to pay greater attentionto the major buildings (citadels, temples, palaces) rather than thehomes of the general population.

Onlyin recent years have accurate methods of stratification and recordingenabled comparisons to be made between sites, and the reliability ofsome foundational excavations in the Holy Land is rightly questionedby the finds from newer excavations (e.g., Megiddo, Gezer, and Hazorare being reexcavated in part to clarify and answer questions raisedby previous excavations and debates). This is understandable becausemost of the foundational excavations in the Holy Land did not haveaccess to the accurate methods of stratification, recording, andscientific analysis available today. Many useful artifacts andespecially organic objects were routinely discarded in the earlierexcavations.

Ingeneral, earlier levels of a site are more likely to have beendisturbed by the activities of later periods, and it was very commonfor older buildings (and sometimes even monumental inscriptions) tobe dismantled and the (stone) blocks reused for later buildings oreven roads. The objects that archaeologists discover survive and aremost often found by accident. Consequently, given the limitations andpitfalls of archaeology (especially the way it was done in theearliest part of the twentieth century), one must have realistic andmore modest expectations about what archaeology can recover, andrealize that the further one goes in time, the less archaeologicalinformation may be available for comparison and useful analysis. Addto this that some of the central characters of the Bible (e.g.,Abraham, Moses, most of the judges, Ezra) were not major players inthe world of their time, and that some important sites have neverbeen excavated (e.g., Damascus, Hebron), and it becomes clear thatthere are considerable reasons to have more realistic and modestexpectations about what archaeology can accomplish.

Therole and possibility of accurately interpreting archaeologicalremains should also be taken into consideration, especially sincethere are well-documented cases in which the interpretation of theexcavator has turned out to be false (e.g., the “DegeneratedAshtoreth Plaque” of R. A. S. Macalister from Gezer).Anyone who has ever participated in an archaeological excavation ledby a group of experts in the field can remember debates that tookplace among these experts, not only about the dating of variouspieces of pottery, but even about the role and dating of well-definedand visible monumental architecture. While this is understandable anddesirable, and many times leads to the refinement and corrections ofunwarranted early assumptions, the process shows the difficultyinherent in interpreting the fragmentary remains of a deadcivilization far removed from our times and settings.

MaterialRemains and Written Sources

Itis a sobering fact that archaeology cannot provide the basis forhistory. Material remains can reveal climate changes and theirimpact, sequences of human cultures and their products, traces ofdestruction and desertion, changes in building techniques and art.Nevertheless, the persons involved remain anonymous, their thoughts,motives and faith a mystery, and the specific events of their timeslargely unknown (e.g., the destruction by fire of Lachish IIcould not have been accurately dated and related without the biblicalreport in Jer. 34:7). It is the written documents (many timesrecovered through archaeology) that can reveal the names of kings andkingdoms, their dates and deeds, and the fruits of their thinking inliterature. It is the testimony of these texts, rightly evaluated,that can add the “flesh and features” to the “bones”archaeology discovers (Allan Millard).

Onthe other hand, the material remains of life (pottery, jewelry,tools, weapons, cultic objects, architecture, etc.) as recoveredthrough archaeology can bring color to the textual references.Nevertheless, the written sources are essential and provide the mostvaluable information for recovering the history and faith of anyancient nation. It is the duty of the biblical scholar andarchaeologist to interpret correctly the available data fromSyria-Palestine and to arrive at plausible explanations concerningthe biblical world. The combination of texts (biblical andextrabiblical), material culture (archaeology), geography, andhistory holds considerable promise to help scholars better define thecontext of Scripture.

Thereis no doubt that this approach to archaeology holds considerablepotential as it is generating more material than is possible for anyperson (or even school) to encompass. As one of the most quicklychanging social sciences today, both in theoretical advances and newdata, archaeology is and will be the source of new insights intobiblical life and times. It seems that the “archaeologicalrevolution” predicted by W. F. Albright is far from over;it probably has only begun.

Theevidence for this revolution from the evangelical field is visible invarious ways. The rest of this entry briefly presents some selectivearchaeological data that helps define the context and thatcomplements (since the writers of the Bible were selective in theirreporting), challenges, or confirms the narrative of the Bible. Thedata should help the interpreter of the Bible bridge thegeographical, temporal, and cultural gap that leads to the ancientwriter.

TheCannanite (Bronze) Age (3300–1200 BC)

EarlyBronze Age.Towns with mud-brick walls begin to appear in Canaan in the EarlyBronze Age I (before 3000 BC). Evidence of occupation in thethird millennium is found at Beth-yerah, Beth-shan, Gezer, Jerusalem,Jericho, Arad, Megiddo, and Ai, among others. There was a differencebetween the pottery of the north (Beth-yerah) and that of the south,while the most striking development was that of the fine “KhirbetKerak” ware.

MiddleBronze Age.About 2200 BC (Middle Bronze Age I) there arrived a distinctivenomadic people identified with the Amorites of the Bible (Num. 13:29;Josh. 5:1; 10:6). They had distinctive burial customs, pottery, andweapons that show connection with the city-states of Syria. It ismost likely that their kings included the Asiatic “ForeignRulers” (Hyksos) who conquered Egypt in the eighteenth centuryBC. This was a time of wealth and frequent warfare between cities. Itseems that the Middle Bronze Age was a time when seminomadic groups(including a group called “Habiru,” who are also found inthe Late Bronze Age) infiltrated the land between defended towns. Itis possible that the patriarchs were among these Habiru, whoinfiltrated mostly the hill country and the Negev. In fact, it isdemonstrable from a comparison with the eighteenth-century BC textsfrom Mari (on the Euphrates River) that the pastoral traditions ofGenesis fit the early second-millennium BC context much better thanlater periods.

Thetowns and houses of the Middle Bronze Age were violently destroyed inthe fifteenth century BC, most likely by the Egyptians, who expelledthe Hyksos. Despite the trade that seems to have continued with theeastern Mediterranean (Mycenaean pottery), the hill towns ofPalestine were now poorer and fewer than the coastal cities. Thissituation is clearly reflected in the Amarna letters between thekings of Canaan and Egypt. The major cities were reoccupied, but manyof them were destroyed later in the thirteenth century.

LateBronze Age.It is in the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC) that thebiblical account is usually challenged by the archaeologicaldiscoveries. Even if one accepts the reasonable interpretation thatJoshua burned only three cities (Jericho, Ai, Hazor) in his campaign(see Josh. 6:24; 8:28; 11:13), the evidence of destruction from bothJericho and Ai is highly questionable. Thus, while it is widelybelieved that Jericho was abandoned around 1325 BC, the fallen wallsonce thought to belong to this period were dated much earlier byKathleen Kenyon (Early Bronze). The evidence from Ai (et-Tell) iseven less promising, unless Bryan Wood is correct in hisidentification of Ai with Khirbet el-Maqatir.

Basedon the apparent lack of change in material culture during the LateBronze Age, mainstream archaeologists commonly classify theIsraelites as dissident Canaanites who moved into the hill country.

Althoughit cannot be conclusively demonstrated from archaeology that theIsraelites were not Canaanites but rather came to Canaan from theoutside, the mainstream interpretation has serious problems of itsown. There was clearly a new pattern of simple farming in the hills,characterized by four-room houses whose inhabitants used manycollared-rim jars, and there is an almost complete absence of pigbones (which usually are found in the Canaanite cities) in thehill-country sites. More important, there is strong evidence that theIsraelites were worshiping their own national God (YHWH) by the ninthcentury BC, in sharp contrast to the polytheistic religion of Canaan(as illuminated by the culture in neighboring Ugarit). The personalnames of individuals in the eighth and seventh centuries BC arealmost exclusively Yahwistic.

Anothervery significant change is the abandonment of the shrines in towns ofthe Late Bronze Age. Not a single site can be identified in whichworship continued from the Late Bronze Age well into the Iron Age (itseems that by 1000 BC the Canaanites disappeared as an entity in thearea occupied by Israel). It is highly unlikely that the Canaaniteswho moved from towns into the hill-country sites would have abandonedtheir divinities (whose need they must have felt greatly while facingthe uncertainties of the wilderness), and it is even more unlikelythat people who had come from different towns with different deitieswould have accepted almost universally a new patron deity of obscureprovenance. The continuity in material culture of a nation that wasto take over the homes and all the equipment of the Canaanites shouldnot be surprising in light of the commands of the Bible (Deut.6:10–11). The almost universal rise of the worship of the Godof Israel, and the mention of Israel as a group of people in theStela of Merneptah (c. 1208 BC), argue forcefully that theIsraelites were not really Canaanites.

TheIsraelite (Iron) Age (1200–586 BC)

Bythe twelfth century, the Philistine settlement of southwest Canaan isattested by a new type of pottery with Late Mycenaean affinities.This new type of pottery was found throughout Philistia, theShephelah, and as far north as Joppa. Wealthy and well-constructedCanaanite cities held out for at least another century (Beth-Shean,Gezer, and Megiddo?). The evidence for Israelites comes from thesmall villages throughout the hill country and Galilee.Traditionally, as mentioned above, they are recognized by theirfour-room houses, large number of storage pits for grain, largestorage jars with thick-collared rims, and preference for terracinghillsides for farming.

Archaeologically,it is very difficult to at­trib­ute the construction ofcities to any king of the united monarchy (but see the recentdiscovery below). Saul had a citadel at Gibeah (Tell el-Fûl),and the first fortification there has been attributed to him. Itshows the adoption of a new fortification system of casemate wall,characteristic of this period. Similar casemate walls have been foundat Shechem, Beth-shemesh, and Beit Mirsim (and later even in Moab). Asmall town at Megiddo, whose houses form a defensive ring around theperimeter of the mound, has been attributed to David.

Though1 Kings 9:15 reports how Solomon built up Hazor, Megiddo, andGezer, the dating of the six-chambered gates found in all of thesesites and the related walls is still being debated. A much morerecent excavation from Khirbat en-Nahas in Jordan has foundindustrial-scale production of copper in a region and at a time thatcorrelates well with the narrative about Solomon (see 1 Kings7:46).

Anothervery recent and impressive find comes from Khirbet Qeiyafa (mostlikely Shaaraim [Josh. 15:36; 1 Sam. 17:52; 1 Chron.4:31–32]). This site, located in the western part of the highShephelah (near Azekah), was recently excavated by Yosef Garfinkeland Saar Ganor of Hebrew University, Jerusalem. On the basis of fourburnt olive pits tested at Oxford University, the excavators datedthis fortified city to the time of David. They concluded that themassive construction of the city wall (which required two hundredthousand tons of stone) supports the existence of a centralizedpolitical organization, a state—a conclusion that hasfar-reaching implications for the disputed chronology of Iron Age IIA(1000–900 BC). They also found a five-line inscription,indicating that writing was practiced in the region. This inscriptionis important because it seems to be the longest proto-Canaaniteinscription ever found, and the earliest Hebrew inscription known todate.

TheHellenistic-Roman Period (332 BC and Following)

Herodthe Great (37–4 BC) was the ambitious ruler who carried throughmost of the grand building projects that still dot the Holy Landtoday. At Jerusalem, which is still being excavated, the massivewalls that he built for the platform of the temple are still visibletoday both above and below the ground. Other ruins associated withHerod have been found at Caesarea, Jericho, Herodium (nearBethlehem), Masada, and also in Jordan.

Oneof the most important inscriptions for NT studies (especially theGospels) was found by the Italian excavators of Caesarea. Theseexcavators found that the inscription refers to Pontius Pilate,prefect of Judea. Other inscriptions from Greece and Turkey areconnected with the events described in Acts and Paul’s letters.Thus, in Corinth a door inscription (“Synagogue of theHebrews”) may indicate the place where Paul preached (Acts18:4). Excavations there revealed a text naming Erastus as abenefactor. This may be the city treasurer of Rom. 16:23. Near Lystrainscriptions record the dedication to Zeus of a statue of Hermes bysome Lycaonians, and nearby was a stone altar for Zeus and Hermes.This explains the identification of Barnabas with Zeus (Jupiter) andPaul with Hermes (Mercury) in Acts 14:11–12.

Itis clear from the selective sample of data presented here that thefield of archaeology has contributed considerably to the context andunderstanding of the biblical world. All the signs and recentexcavations suggest that there are continuing and exciting prospectsto be found in the newer (biblical) archaeology.

The books of Samuel tell the story of how kingship began in Israel and was subsequently secured under David. Almost all of David’s own story is recounted in Samuel, including God’s promise to him of a dynasty. This promise became a key seedbed for the messianic hope within the OT, which finds its fulfillment in Jesus as David’s son (Matt. 1:1).

Genre and Purpose

Samuel is part of a block of texts running from Joshua through Kings (excluding Ruth), which is known in the Hebrew Bible as the Former Prophets. This block offers a more or less continuous account of Israel’s life in the land of promise from its entry under Joshua until the exile after Jerusalem was captured by the Babylonians (2Kings 25). Any assessment of the genre and purpose of Samuel must consider its relationship to these surrounding texts, though it should also recognize the distinctive elements of Samuel itself.

At its simplest, Samuel is a work of narrative prose that tells how kingship began in Israel and was secured under David after the failure of Saul, though it also contains a number of important poems. Although contemporary history writing would not be done in the same way, since Samuel points to the ways in which God is active throughout this time, Samuel certainly offers a testimony to this crucial period in Israel’s history. It is not the whole story of the period, as its testimony is concerned with a specific set of issues, and that testimony is related through God’s purposes for Samuel, Saul, and David. But this observation is vital for appreciating that Samuel is not just the story of how kingship came to Israel but is specifically a theological examination of it. It explores how God was at work, fulfilling the hope for kingship that had been expressed through Judg. 17–21, while also providing hope that the exile was not the end of his purposes for Israel as a whole and the kings of David’s line in particular. We should not think of this as a dry piece of history writing, for an important element is also that the telling of this story should entertain and grip those who either read or (perhaps more likely) heard it. Knowing that God had acted in the past for his people and that these actions continued to be important was not enough; the excitement that this should generate also needed to be apparent in the skill with which the story was told.

Outline

I. The Rise of Samuel (1Sam. 1–7)

II. The Birth of Monarchy (1Sam. 8–12)

III. Saul’s Early Reign and Rejection (1Sam. 13–15)

IV. Long Rivalry Narrative: David and Saul (1Sam.16–2Sam. 1)

A. David’s anointing and arrival at court (1Sam. 16–17)

B. David within Saul’s court (1Sam. 18–20)

C. David as an outlaw in Judah (1Sam. 21–26)

D. David in Philistine territory and Saul’s death (1Sam. 27–2Sam. 1)

V. Short Rivalry Narrative: David and Ish-Bosheth (2Sam. 2:1–5:5)

VI. First Summary of David’s Reign (2Sam. 5:6–8:18)

VII. Narrative of David’s Court (2Sam. 9–20)

A. David accepts Mephibosheth (2Sam. 9)

B. The war with Ammon and David’s sin (2Sam. 10–12)

C. Long rebellion narrative: Absalom against David (2Sam. 13–19)

D. Short rebellion narrative: Sheba against David (2Sam. 20)

VIII. Second Summary of David’s Reign (2Sam. 21–24)

Composition

Authorship and sources. The books of Samuel are anonymous, and any assessment of their authorship needs to start with this basic fact. There is a tradition in the Talmud (b.B.Bat. 14b; 15a) that associates the book with Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, presumably concluding that the books of Samuel constitute the source mentioned by 1Chron. 29:29. But this reference is only to information on David’s life and thus is unlikely to refer to the whole of Samuel. Since Samuel’s own death is recorded in 1Sam. 25:1, the book’s title in our tradition (in the LXX the books of Samuel are the first two books of Kingdoms, which continue into Kings) is unlikely to refer to authorship. Rather, it is more likely that a later author has drawn together a range of source materials in order to offer a coherent testimony about the origins of kingship.

For some time, the main sources behind Samuel seemed to have been identified, and they included a series of Shiloh traditions concerning the end of the house of Eli and the rise of Samuel (1Sam. 1:1–4:1a), an ark narrative (2Sam. 4:1b–7:1; 6), traditions concerning Saul and the origins of kingship (1Sam. 7:2–15:35), a history of David’s rise (1Sam. 16:1–2Sam. 5:5), a succession narrative (2Sam. 9–20), and a Samuel appendix (2Sam. 21–24). Within this analysis, the place of 2Sam. 5:6–25 and 2Sam. 7:1–8:17 remained unclear, but the general thought was that the sources were more or less placed one after the other in their chronological sequence. But the probability of this conclusion has been challenged in recent times because the various sections of the books are clearly aware of information in other parts, so that the whole is actually well integrated. In addition, the actual boundaries of the sources remained unclear. An unfortunate effect of the source theories is that they tended to downplay some parts of the book, especially 2Sam. 21–24, as being of less importance, whereas some recent studies have shown that they are closely integrated into the rest of the book, tying together themes developed elsewhere while also showing the structural integrity of the whole of Samuel.

Samuel is likely the end product of several stages of material collected together, rather than being the product of sources that are kept intact, but it is still a unified work. Possibly the oldest material is the collection of longer poems in 1Sam. 2:1–10; 2Sam. 1:17–27; 22:1–23:7, all of which draws on common themes and language and comments on the nature of kingship. The opening and closing blocks form the bookends, raising the hope of kingship (1Sam. 2:1–10) and then commenting on how the king must submit to God’s reign (2Sam. 22:1–23:7). In the central poem (2Sam. 1:17–27) David laments the deaths of Saul and Jonathan. It is likely that these poems were joined with the stories about Samuel, Saul, and David in the ninth century BC but were then carefully placed to comment on the stories and yet also be commented on by them. Further editing may have continued until the time of Hezekiah in the late eighth century BC. Later on, more or less the whole of Samuel as we know it was included in the Former Prophets, perhaps during the exile. The important point to note here is that Samuel is a carefully composed whole and not simply a collection of source materials.

Literary devices. Evidence for the nature of the book’s composition can be seen in how it employs certain literary devices throughout. Two that are worth noting are the way the text plays with narrative chronology and employs repetition in various forms. The play with narrative chronology means that although the movement of the book is broadly chronological (moving from the origins of the monarchy to the latter period of David’s reign), not every element is recorded in its actual chronological sequence, since at some points other factors were more important. Alternatively, at some points different narrative strands are brought into a chronological relationship with one another, most notably in comparing the locations of David and Saul in 1Sam. 27–2Sam. 1. A simple example of relating material outside its chronological sequence occurs in 1Sam. 26:12, where it is said that God had caused Saul’s soldiers to sleep so that David could enter Saul’s camp only after David had reached Saul, though clearly the soldiers must already have been asleep.

At other points, the breaks with chronological sequence cover different stories about David. For example, in 2Sam. 5:17–8:14 there are four accounts about David, two in which he overcomes enemies (5:17–25; 8:1–14) and two associated with events in Jerusalem and public worship (6:1–7:29). Since 7:1 tells us that David’s desire to build a temple came after God had delivered him from all his enemies, it follows that the events of chapter 7 must have come after those of 8:1–14. Here, arranging the material to highlight the theme of public worship was more important than placing it in chronological sequence.

This same section also demonstrates the use of repetition. Hence, 5:17–25 recounts two nearly identical defeats of the Philistines in which David must trust God, while the victories in 8:1–14 are twice said to come about because God gave David victory wherever he went (8:6, 14). Similarly, both 6:1–23 and 7:1–29 depend upon interest in the ark and thus mutually interpret each other. Other large-scale repetitions include two announcements of the coming of kingship (1Sam. 2:10, 34), two announcements of the end of Eli and his family in the sanctuary at Shiloh (1Sam. 2:27–36; 3:10–14), and two times when David does not kill Saul (1Sam. 24; 26). In an oral culture, such repetitions are not evidence of poor composition but rather are a crucial tool for emphasizing the central themes being developed. In addition, variations within each repetition are a tool for increasing the audience’s interest, showing that the authors of Samuel were interested in both giving historical testimony and entertaining their audience.

Text

It is generally agreed that the text of Samuel poses more than its fair share of difficulties, something that can be seen in the often significant differences between the received Hebrew text (MT) and the early translations, especially the main Greek translation (LXX). For example, in 1Sam. 17 the best-regarded edition of the LXX lacks vv. 12–31, 50, 55–58, and even in shared material it is sometimes significantly shorter. It is generally agreed that the Greek version resolves a number of anomalies, but is this because the MT has been expanded or because the LXX has been abbreviated? In addition, three significant Samuel manuscripts were found at Qumran. Although two of these are only fragmentary, one covers significant portions of Samuel. Although the disputed portions of 1Sam. 17 are absent from it, there are some points where it appears to support the LXX and others where it agrees with the MT while also introducing some other issues of its own.

It is clear, therefore, that complex issues are involved in determining the text of Samuel, and one must avoid taking a doctrinaire position and allow each point to be resolved on its own merits. At the same time, the difficulties should not be magnified beyond reason, since large sections of the text can be established with reasonable certainty, and for all the problems, the MT remains a reliable guide. One might suggest in the case of 1Sam. 17, for example, that the LXX text represents an early attempt to address apparent difficulties in the narrative (especially the question of when Saul met David) that nevertheless failed to realize that not everything in Samuel is narrated in exact chronological order. Nevertheless, anyone who compares different translations of Samuel (e.g., NIV and NRSV) will notice variants and should make use of good commentaries at that point.

Central Themes

The reign of God. Kingship lies at the heart of Samuel. But although it is concerned with the story of Israel’s first two kings (Abimelek in Judg. 9 is an aberration and probably only a local figure), it places their story within the framework of God’s reign. No matter what authority a king in Israel might claim, it was always subject to God’s greater authority. Indeed, Samuel makes clear that God did not need a king but rather chose the monarchy as the means by which his own reign might be demonstrated.

An important way in which God’s reign is demonstrated is through the motif of the reversal of fortunes, in which the powerful are brought down and the weak raised. This is announced in Hannah’s Song (1Sam. 2:4–8) and is then demonstrated when God removed the corrupt family of Eli from their position of power in the sanctuary at Shiloh (2:27–36; 4:1–18). On the other hand, Samuel himself came to prominence even though he had no position of power. Saul, likewise, although a member of a relatively wealthy family (9:1–2), knew that he was not someone who had automatic power (9:21) but still was raised up to be king by God. Yet when he, like Eli before him, became corrupt and clung to power rather than submit to God, he too was removed so that he could be replaced (15:28–29).

David also came from a humble position as the youngest son in his family (1Sam. 16:11), but unlike Eli and Saul, he would not grasp power for himself. Indeed, he twice refused to kill Saul when he had the chance (1Sam. 24; 26) and punished those who claimed that they could exercise violence on his behalf (2Sam. 1:11–16; 4:9–12). Even when it seemed that David had later lost all to Absalom, he held to the fact that he could reign only as long as he had God’s support (2Sam. 15:25–26). This, in fact, is a central theme in 2Sam. 7 when David wanted to build a temple for God, for there it is made clear that David cannot act without God’s authority, and that his descendants will have authority as long as they too submit to God (2Sam. 7:11b–15). David’s closing songs (22:1–23:7) make clear that the king has no authority apart from God.

Kingship. Kingship in Israel is closely related to the theme of God’s reign. The possibility of kingship first arises in Hannah’s Song (1Sam. 2:10) and is confirmed by the man of God who announces the judgment against Eli’s family (2:34). Both references occur before Israel’s elders requested a king because of the failure of Samuel’s sons (8:1–9), indicating that the request for a king did not take God by surprise. In addition, it indicates that authentic kingship in Israel could only be that which was initiated by God.

The story of Saul’s rise to the throne needs to be read in light of this. Although the human move to kingship stemmed from the request of the elders for a king (1Sam. 8:4–9), it was still the case that Saul could become king only because of God’s decision. Although 1Sam. 8–12 often has been broken down into supposedly conflicting sources, it is better to read it as a unified text but to note that the narrator’s voice is not equivalent to any of the characters that speak through it. When the text is understood in this way, it is possible to appreciate that kingship was part of God’s purposes for Israel, but it needed to follow his model. Kings in Israel could prosper only when they submitted to the greater reign of God. It was Saul’s mistake that he did not recognize this. David, although he made some terrible mistakes, always understood this truth, and his closing songs (2Sam. 22:1–23:7) reflect on it. David learned what Saul never did: power is never something to be grasped; rather, it can only be accepted as a gracious gift from God to be used for his purposes.

New Testament Connections

The importance of the books of Samuel for the NT is far greater than its five direct citations there (Acts 13:22; Rom. 15:9; 2Cor. 6:18 [2×]; Heb. 1:5) might indicate. The theme of kingship and the associated promise to David in 2Sam. 7 are fundamental to the messianic hope throughout the OT and are picked up in the NT. Even when the NT cites other OT texts (such as Ps. 2) with reference to Jesus, it is still the books of Samuel that lie behind the citation. In addition, the NT frequently indicates that Jesus was a son of David (e.g., Matt. 1:1). Although such texts do not cite Samuel directly, they clearly allude to it because of God’s promise that David’s throne would be established forever (2Sam. 7:16). Jesus’ ministry transcends that of David in every way, but we cannot understand his ministry apart from David and God’s promise to him.

Various Hebrew and Greek words are rendered as “bag,”representing a flexible container used to carry provisions, money,measuring weights, or spices and other valuables. A bag could be madeof animal skins, leather, or cloth. A small bag might be fastened toa belt, while a traveler’s bag large enough to carry severaldays’ provisions would be slung over the shoulder. Itsconstruction could range from a simple bundle of cloth tied withstring to a more fabricated carrying case. In the OT, Joseph putgrain in his brothers’ traveling bags (Gen. 42:25); later thebrothers were advised to present Joseph with gifts of spices and nutsto be toted in their bags (43:11). David carried a shepherd’sprovision bag and used it to hold the stones that he chose for hissling when he killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40, 49). Bags were usedto hold currency or precious metals (2 Kings 5:23; 12:10; Isa.46:6). Merchants carried measuring weights of metal or stone in abag. The Bible stresses the importance of carrying honest measuringstandards in those bags (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11). Jobpours out his hopelessness to God, longing for his sins to bemetaphorically tied up in a bag (14:17).

Inthe Gospels, two kinds of bags are mentioned. One is the traveler’sbag used to carry food and clothing while on a journey. Jesus tellshis disciples not to take such a bag when he sends them out asapostles to preach, heal, and drive out demons (Matt. 10:10; Mark6:8; Luke 9:3; 10:4). Just before his arrest, Jesus reverses thatadvice, instructing his disciples to take not only a bag (forprovisions) and purse (for money) but a sword as well (Luke22:35–36). A different Greek word is used for the moneybag orbox that Judas is in charge of and from which he pilfers (John 12:6).

A reddish metallic element valued for its appearance,malleability, ductility, and ability to alloy with other metals.Neither Hebrew nor Greek distinguished between copper and bronze,using the same words for both. Most references in the Bible should betranslated “bronze,” but when referring to ore and thesmelting process, the terms should be translated “copper”(Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20).

Copperis one of the earliest known metals. The first metallic weapons andtools were made from copper. The Bible associates the origin ofmetalworking with Tubal-Cain (Gen. 4:22). As early as 8000 BC nativecopper was hammered into objects. Since most copper is found inimpure forms, it has to be smelted. Evidence of smelted copper datesto as early as 5000 BC. The greatest advances in copper metallurgycame with the addition of other metals. At first, arsenic was addedto improve the qualities of copper. The addition of tin formedbronze, and the addition of zinc formed brass. The resulting alloyswere stronger, had lower melting points, and could be cast into moreintricate forms. The Cave of Treasure, which was found in the JudeanDesert about six miles southwest of Ein-Gedi, has produced some ofthe finest copper pieces in antiquity. This hoard of over fourhundred copper pieces dates from about 3000 BC and gives evidence ofthe craftwork of ancient copper metallurgy.

Theancient Israelites extensively used copper/bronze for musicalinstruments (1 Chron. 15:19), weapons (Ps. 18:34), armor (1 Sam.17:5), mirrors (Job 37:18), and cooking utensils (Lev. 6:28). In thetabernacle and temple many objects were made of bronze, includingincense censers, tent pegs, utensils, and the altar (Exod. 27:2–3).In the temple the large water basin (the Sea) was made of bronze andrested on twelve bronze bulls (2 Kings 16:17). The bronzeserpent that Moses made in the wilderness (Num. 21:9) stood in thetemple until King Hezekiah destroyed it (2 Kings 18:4). Althoughmost coins were made of silver, some small coins, including thewidow’s mite, were made of copper (Mark 12:42).

Thelargest source of copper in antiquity was Cyprus (the word “copper”is derived from the Latin word for “Cyprus”). Closersources of copper were Ai (1 Kings 7:45–46), Timna (insouthern Israel, about twenty miles north of Eilat), and Khirbaten-Nahas (in Jordan).

“Ephrathah” (NIV), “Ephratah” (KJV),and “Ephrath” (both versions) represent variant spellingsof the same Hebrew word. The word can designate a person, a location,or a clan and familial designation related to both the person and thelocation.

(1)Ephrathwas the wife of Caleb (the great-grandson of Judah) and the mother ofHur (1Chron. 2:19, 50). Hur, the son of Ephrathah, is calledthe “father of Bethlehem” (1Chron. 4:4), perhapsdenoting civic leadership.

(2)Ephrathis the location where Rachel, Jacob’s beloved wife, died givingbirth to Benjamin while they were in the process of moving fromBethel to Bethlehem (Gen. 35:16, 19). Genesis 35:19 adds theeditorial comment that Ephrath is the same location as Bethlehem,although it is possible that the two were separate towns at first andthat only later Ephrath was absorbed into Bethlehem. This story andits identification of Ephrath with Bethlehem is repeated in Gen. 48:7when Jacob blesses his children before his death. By the time of theprophet Micah, the two place names had become synonymous. Micah’sfamous messianic promise that the ruler would come from a small town,and not Jerusalem, praised “Bethlehem Ephrathah” (Mic.5:2).

(3)David,when preparing to fight Goliath, is recorded as “the son of anEphrathite named Jesse” (1Sam. 17:12). Later in the samechapter David says that he is a son of “Jesse of Bethlehem”(1Sam. 17:58). Thus, the designation between location and beinga descendant of Ephrath is blurred (of course, most members of a clanwould have lived closely together). This is also the case in Ruth 1:2when Naomi’s husband and sons are recorded as being Ephrathitesfrom Bethlehem, thus tying the name “Ephrathah” to thegeographic location of Bethlehem (see also Ruth 4:11). Similarly,Caleb’s name is associated with Ephrathah in 1Chron.2:24, where it is recorded that Hezron, Caleb’s father, dies atCaleb Ephrathah. Because “Caleb Ephrathah” is an unusualplace name (cf. KJV: “Calebephratah”; NRSV:“Caleb-ephrathah”) and the Hebrew syntax of this verse isawkward, some prefer to emend the text, giving, for example, “Afterthe death of Hezron, Caleb had relations with Ephrathah, the widow ofhis father Hezron, and she bore him Ashhur, the father of Tekoa”(NAB).

“Ephrathah” (NIV), “Ephratah” (KJV),and “Ephrath” (both versions) represent variant spellingsof the same Hebrew word. The word can designate a person, a location,or a clan and familial designation related to both the person and thelocation.

(1)Ephrathwas the wife of Caleb (the great-grandson of Judah) and the mother ofHur (1Chron. 2:19, 50). Hur, the son of Ephrathah, is calledthe “father of Bethlehem” (1Chron. 4:4), perhapsdenoting civic leadership.

(2)Ephrathis the location where Rachel, Jacob’s beloved wife, died givingbirth to Benjamin while they were in the process of moving fromBethel to Bethlehem (Gen. 35:16, 19). Genesis 35:19 adds theeditorial comment that Ephrath is the same location as Bethlehem,although it is possible that the two were separate towns at first andthat only later Ephrath was absorbed into Bethlehem. This story andits identification of Ephrath with Bethlehem is repeated in Gen. 48:7when Jacob blesses his children before his death. By the time of theprophet Micah, the two place names had become synonymous. Micah’sfamous messianic promise that the ruler would come from a small town,and not Jerusalem, praised “Bethlehem Ephrathah” (Mic.5:2).

(3)David,when preparing to fight Goliath, is recorded as “the son of anEphrathite named Jesse” (1Sam. 17:12). Later in the samechapter David says that he is a son of “Jesse of Bethlehem”(1Sam. 17:58). Thus, the designation between location and beinga descendant of Ephrath is blurred (of course, most members of a clanwould have lived closely together). This is also the case in Ruth 1:2when Naomi’s husband and sons are recorded as being Ephrathitesfrom Bethlehem, thus tying the name “Ephrathah” to thegeographic location of Bethlehem (see also Ruth 4:11). Similarly,Caleb’s name is associated with Ephrathah in 1Chron.2:24, where it is recorded that Hezron, Caleb’s father, dies atCaleb Ephrathah. Because “Caleb Ephrathah” is an unusualplace name (cf. KJV: “Calebephratah”; NRSV:“Caleb-ephrathah”) and the Hebrew syntax of this verse isawkward, some prefer to emend the text, giving, for example, “Afterthe death of Hezron, Caleb had relations with Ephrathah, the widow ofhis father Hezron, and she bore him Ashhur, the father of Tekoa”(NAB).

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color,but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes,and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can bedescribed as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored”(Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicatechanges or variety of color.

Certaincolors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while othersoccur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange),reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient NearEast. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxuryitems indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly andheavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are notusually described in terms of the colors of their appearance.Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam.17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

Thefollowing colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning inthe Bible:

White.Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), whitemuch more commonly has a positive association, being the color ofpurity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev.1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wearwhite robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black.The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair ofher beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have lesspositive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseasedskin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod.10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red.Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color ofblood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, andminerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, andcrimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animalskins were included in the offerings made for the construction of thetabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa.1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue.Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’scommandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors wereblue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments wereworn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple.Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign ofwealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kingsof Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage ofKing Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonianking Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan.5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in amockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue,purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth andpower, but when used together these three colors were the epitome ofopulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. Thetabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn(Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33).The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron.3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark ofthe Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiahdescribes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to concealtheir worthlessness (10:9).

Gray.Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green.Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-givingfood and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given byGod for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was adevastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). Peoplecould be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful andblessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed(2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

Also known as kherem warfare or Yahweh war. The term “holywar,” though never used in the Bible, characterizes well thewars that Israel fought at God’s command, particularly thosewithin the Promised Land. God is present with Israel in war, and thusthe battlefield becomes holy ground. God gives Israel instructionsconcerning the waging of war in Deut. 7, 20. From these passages,plus the historical accounts of Israel’s wars, we can describeholy war as follows.

Beforethe Battle

Godtells Israel when to go to war. Israel’s leaders cannot engagein battle without first hearing from God. God reveals himself toJoshua, for instance, before the battle of Jericho to give himinstructions (Josh. 5:13–15). David inquires of God through thepriest Abiathar, who presumably uses oracular devices to discoverGod’s will (1Sam. 23:1–6). Joshua makes a seriouserror in not seeking God’s will in the matter of the Gibeonites(Josh. 9:14).

Oncethe Israelites learn that God wants them to go to battle, they mustspiritually prepare themselves. Since God makes his presence known onthe battlefield, the troops must be in a state of ritual puritycomparable to those who visit the sanctuary. Before the conquest, forinstance, it is necessary for the fighting men to undergocircumcision and to observe the Passover (Josh. 5:2–12).Prebattle sacrifices are also required (1Sam.13).

Duringthe Battle

TheArk of the Covenant plays a central role in holy war, carried bypriests and accompanying the army. The ark is a powerful symbol ofGod’s presence and indicates to the army that God fights forthem. The march into battle takes the form of a religious procession.The priests carrying the ark go first, while singers praise God(2Chron. 20:20–21). The long march in the wilderness hasthe character of such a march into battle, since Moses begins theday’s journey by shouting, “Rise up, Lord! May yourenemies be scattered; may your foes flee before you” (Num.10:35). Then the ark carried by priests leads the way.

SinceGod is present with the army, the number of troops and the quality oftheir weapons are unimportant. Indeed, on occasion when Israel has anample supply of troops, God commands that the war leader reduce theirnumber, as in the famous story of Gideon paring down his troops fromthirty-two thousand to three hundred. The purpose of this reductionis to demonstrate to the people with certainty that they win thebattle only because of God’s strength. The inexperienced David,armed with a slingshot, expresses this sentiment to the mercenarygiant Goliath before he kills him: “You come against me withsword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name ofthe Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you havedefied.... All those gathered here will know thatit is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves; for the battle isthe Lord’s, and he will give all of you into our hands”(1Sam. 17:45, 47). Although the Israelites must engage theenemy, they know for certain that it is God who provides the victory.

Afterthe Battle

SinceGod wins the battle for Israel, the proper response is praise. The OTcontains many songs that celebrate victory in warfare (Exod. 15;Judg. 5; Pss. 24; 98; 149).

Thetreatment of the plunder and prisoners of war depends on whether thebattle takes place in the promised land. If the battle takes placeoutside the land, then, while the men are killed, the women andchildren are spared. If the battle takes place in the land, thenkherem goes into effect. The Hebrew word kherem is difficult totranslate (possibilities include “complete destruction,”“things under the ban,” “things devoted to theLord”), but it is clear that it means that all the plunder goesto God (the sanctuary treasury) and that all the people (men, women,and children), and sometimes all the animals, are killed. The purposeof this is to keep the inhabitants of the land from influencingIsrael to worship other gods. Also, God uses Israel as an instrumentof his judgment against these sinful nations.

Warfareagainst Israel

Whilemost divinely ordained warfare was directed toward Israel’senemies, God also used foreign nations to judge his sinful people.The initial defeat at Ai (Josh. 7), the capture of the ark by thePhilistines at the time of Eli (1Sam. 4), and the destructionof Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians (Lam. 2) are examples.

NewTestament Holy War

Theprophets who ministered during the exilic and postexilic periodsannounced that God would appear again in the future. The people ofIsrael were living under the oppressive hand of Babylon and thenPersia, but they were comforted by the idea that God would come andsave them from their enemies (Dan. 7; Zech. 14; Mal.4).

Whenthe NT opens, John the Baptist proclaims that the time of judgmentannounced by these prophets has come (Matt. 3:7–12). After hebaptizes Jesus, he is put in prison and hears reports of Jesus’ministry that disturb him. He wonders why Jesus is not bringingviolent judgment against the enemies of God (Matt. 11:1–15).But Jesus has heightened and intensified the warfare so that it isdirected against the “powers and principalities,” andthis battle is won with spiritual weapons (2Cor. 10:3–6;Eph. 6:10–20). Indeed, the ultimate victory is achieved not bykilling but by dying. Paul describes the crucifixion and ascensionusing warfare language in Eph. 4:7–10; Col. 2:13–15.

John,however, was not wrong. The book of Revelation is the fulleststatement of Christ’s return, which will signal the final war.In this war, all evil, both spiritual and human, will be brought toan end (Rev. 19:11–21).

Hunting for food is a postdiluvian activity. In the originalcreation, humankind was allowed to eat only of plant life (Gen.1:29); it was only with the re-creation of the earth that humans wereexplicitly permitted to eat animals: “Everything that lives andmoves about will be food for you. Just as I gave you the greenplants, I now give you everything” (9:3). Therefore, it may beconcluded that hunting as a means of survival had no significance forprediluvian humanity.

Nimrodwas “a mighty hunter before the Lord; that is why it is said,‘Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before the Lord’ ”(Gen. 10:9). However, for many ancient interpreters, the proverbialsaying was viewed with suspicion and was interpreted negatively asopposition against God (Philo, QG 2.82; L.A.B. 4:7; 6:13; Josephus,Ant. 1.113–14; Tg.Neof. 10:9; Frg.Tg. 10:9;Augustine, Civ. 16.4; Jerome, Qu. hebr. Gen. 10.18). Anothermemorable hunter is Esau, “a skillful hunter, a man of the opencountry” (Gen. 25:27). Before Esau could receive a blessing,his father requested that he go hunt game for him; however, the oldand blind Isaac was tricked into blessing the wrong son (27:1–40).

Inancient times, hunting was not an activity limited to providing foodor acquiring other resources such as materials for clothing. There isevidence of hunting as a royal sport. The Assyrian kings were famoushunters of lions, wild bulls, elephants, and other animals. By theseventh century BC, Assyrian kings hunted in special game reserves.For the Assyrians, the killing of wild beasts such as lionssymbolized the duty of the king as a guardian of civilization. Royalhunting does not appear to have been a practice in Israel, althoughsuch a possibility may not be completely ruled out. The young David’sencounter with lion and bear is cited to some extent forself-exaltation purposes and even more so to portray him as afearless shepherd worthy of shepherding Israel (1Sam.17:34–37).

Huntersused various methods to catch or kill their prey: weapons such asquiver, bow, spear, sling, and club (Gen. 27:3; cf. Isa. 7:24), pitsand various snares and gins (Pss. 35:7; 91:3; 2Sam. 23:20; Isa.24:17; Jer. 48:43; Amos 3:5). Bird hunting was also a commonpractice, and snares often were used to make a catch (Pss. 91:3;124:7; Prov. 1:17; 6:5; Eccles. 9:12; Amos 3:5).

Hunting for food is a postdiluvian activity. In the originalcreation, humankind was allowed to eat only of plant life (Gen.1:29); it was only with the re-creation of the earth that humans wereexplicitly permitted to eat animals: “Everything that lives andmoves about will be food for you. Just as I gave you the greenplants, I now give you everything” (9:3). Therefore, it may beconcluded that hunting as a means of survival had no significance forprediluvian humanity.

Nimrodwas “a mighty hunter before the Lord; that is why it is said,‘Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before the Lord’ ”(Gen. 10:9). However, for many ancient interpreters, the proverbialsaying was viewed with suspicion and was interpreted negatively asopposition against God (Philo, QG 2.82; L.A.B. 4:7; 6:13; Josephus,Ant. 1.113–14; Tg.Neof. 10:9; Frg.Tg. 10:9;Augustine, Civ. 16.4; Jerome, Qu. hebr. Gen. 10.18). Anothermemorable hunter is Esau, “a skillful hunter, a man of the opencountry” (Gen. 25:27). Before Esau could receive a blessing,his father requested that he go hunt game for him; however, the oldand blind Isaac was tricked into blessing the wrong son (27:1–40).

Inancient times, hunting was not an activity limited to providing foodor acquiring other resources such as materials for clothing. There isevidence of hunting as a royal sport. The Assyrian kings were famoushunters of lions, wild bulls, elephants, and other animals. By theseventh century BC, Assyrian kings hunted in special game reserves.For the Assyrians, the killing of wild beasts such as lionssymbolized the duty of the king as a guardian of civilization. Royalhunting does not appear to have been a practice in Israel, althoughsuch a possibility may not be completely ruled out. The young David’sencounter with lion and bear is cited to some extent forself-exaltation purposes and even more so to portray him as afearless shepherd worthy of shepherding Israel (1Sam.17:34–37).

Huntersused various methods to catch or kill their prey: weapons such asquiver, bow, spear, sling, and club (Gen. 27:3; cf. Isa. 7:24), pitsand various snares and gins (Pss. 35:7; 91:3; 2Sam. 23:20; Isa.24:17; Jer. 48:43; Amos 3:5). Bird hunting was also a commonpractice, and snares often were used to make a catch (Pss. 91:3;124:7; Prov. 1:17; 6:5; Eccles. 9:12; Amos 3:5).

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals.Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here ison valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as preciousand useful metals. Gold is mentioned in the Bible as early as thegarden of Eden (Gen. 2:11) and at the end is pictured as making upthe streets of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:21). Among the metalsmentioned in Scripture are gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, lead,and iron. Precious stones and minerals also appear in Scripture,often used to adorn items, such as the high priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:15–21). Here these materials will bediscussed in chronological order of appearance.

Copper

Copperwas the first metal to be used for simple farm tools and weapons. Itwas used as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC but wasnot in widespread use until approximately 3300 BC. Copper mines havebeen found on the Sinai Peninsula at places such as the Timna Valleyand Faynan and also extensively on the island of Cyprus, whichsupplied copper to the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman empires.

Referencesto copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss thebasic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smeltingprocess (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NTpassages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency(Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hardto use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloybronze.

Bronze

Theuse of bronze, an alloy made of copper and tin, in biblical landsdates to about 2300 BC. Bronze, compared to pure copper, is easier towork with and has a longer life. It can be worked with hammer andanvil or poured into a mold. It has the same available applicationsas copper; thus it was used to make all the tools and weapons thatwere made of copper. Bronze was widely used during the secondmillennium BC, encompassing the biblical time period from Abraham tothe judges, and its use continued as the raw materials wereavailable. It was the metal of choice until the advanced technologyof ironworking.

Thefirst biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which weare told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next,bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert.Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and basesfor the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:10–11, 17–19).The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze(27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin forwashing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed iton top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundanceof venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles ofbronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons ofbronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amountof bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), andthere was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32,35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss somethingthat was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18;Ezek. 40:3).

Ironand Steel

Ironoriginally was found in meteorites and thus was scarce and worked asa precious metal. After a permanent source of iron ore was found,iron began to be worked in a few areas around 1200 BC. It increasedin popularity over time, and around 1000 BC, or roughly the time ofthe united monarchy, it was being extensively used. Phoeniciantraders were very active during this time, and they would havebrought much iron from the mines of southern Spain. Around the tenthcentury BC the technology to work iron into steel through thequenching and carbonization of the metal became commonplace. A largenumber of iron-producing sites have not been found in Palestine, andno deposits of the raw material have been located. Iron deposits havebeen found between the Jordan and the Euphrates rivers, but whetherthe ancients were aware of these deposits is unknown.

Oncethe technology to turn iron into steel became known, both becamehighly valued. At the same time, it is possible that copper hadbecome more difficult to obtain due to a change in internationaltrading routes. The first steel implement to be unearthed inPalestine was a pick found in Upper Galilee dating to the eleventhcenturyBC.

Oneof the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by theCanaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have beenan early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’srod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7).Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days,David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in buildingthe temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used thesematerials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14).Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context oftrading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor fordiscussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes thestrength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev.2:27; 19:15).

Tin

Tinwas initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin wasnot used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and eventhen seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world arecurrently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish insouthern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoeniciantraders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it iscurrently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and usedduring biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan.Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of awrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons ofcopper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possiblyoriginated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound forthe Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times inScripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek.22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead

Leadwas used early in human history, but its applications were few. Itwould have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extractedas a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, mostnotably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture,either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times itis referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writingimplement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a womansitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Goldand Silver

Soughtafter for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked byhumans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metalswithin the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economicand ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form ofpayment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Goldobjects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly becausemost gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried offas tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological recordmore frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was foundat Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has beendated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdomof Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likelyused as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been mintedinto coins.

Goldin the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. TheBible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well asOphir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places isunknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals,and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of theClassical period were also known for their vast silver-miningoperations.

Silverand gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to theiruses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, theIsraelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold andsilver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernaclewas highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple builtby Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy thatsilver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27).Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture arethose paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

PreciousStones

Stonesof various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makesfew references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were usedmainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highlyprized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohswere fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it onthe Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have beenfound with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaaniteslaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of fortsalong the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably toprotect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones werealso found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able tobring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn bythe Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in thefoundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel usesnine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the kingof Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

TheBible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote ahoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

Various Hebrew and Greek words are rendered as “bag,”representing a flexible container used to carry provisions, money,measuring weights, or spices and other valuables. A bag could be madeof animal skins, leather, or cloth. A small bag might be fastened toa belt, while a traveler’s bag large enough to carry severaldays’ provisions would be slung over the shoulder. Itsconstruction could range from a simple bundle of cloth tied withstring to a more fabricated carrying case. In the OT, Joseph putgrain in his brothers’ traveling bags (Gen. 42:25); later thebrothers were advised to present Joseph with gifts of spices and nutsto be toted in their bags (43:11). David carried a shepherd’sprovision bag and used it to hold the stones that he chose for hissling when he killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40, 49). Bags were usedto hold currency or precious metals (2 Kings 5:23; 12:10; Isa.46:6). Merchants carried measuring weights of metal or stone in abag. The Bible stresses the importance of carrying honest measuringstandards in those bags (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11). Jobpours out his hopelessness to God, longing for his sins to bemetaphorically tied up in a bag (14:17).

Inthe Gospels, two kinds of bags are mentioned. One is the traveler’sbag used to carry food and clothing while on a journey. Jesus tellshis disciples not to take such a bag when he sends them out asapostles to preach, heal, and drive out demons (Matt. 10:10; Mark6:8; Luke 9:3; 10:4). Just before his arrest, Jesus reverses thatadvice, instructing his disciples to take not only a bag (forprovisions) and purse (for money) but a sword as well (Luke22:35–36). A different Greek word is used for the moneybag orbox that Judas is in charge of and from which he pilfers (John 12:6).

The term “salvation” is the broadest one used torefer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about byhumankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one ofthe central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis throughRevelation.

OldTestament

Inmany places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued fromphysical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility ofretribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, Ipray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). Theactions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:5–7;47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray forsalvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss.17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).

Relatedto this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its kingwere saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus,whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to theEgyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army(Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history ofIsrael, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether througha judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or evena shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).

Butthese examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritualcomponent as well. God did not save his people from physical dangeras an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to savethem from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation fromsin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does notprovide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearestplaces that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa.40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesiedreturn are seen as the physical manifestation of the much morefundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address thatfar greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servantwould once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa.52:13–53:12).

NewTestament

Asin the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescuedfrom physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being savedfrom various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor.1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fiercestorm, Jesus’ disciplescry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!”(Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospelsand Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō,used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman withthe hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road(Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō.The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgivingsomeone’ssins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost fromtheir sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holisticsalvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the newheaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensivedescriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people fromtheir sins (see below).

Components

Inseveral passages (e.g., Rom. 5:1–11; Eph. 2:1–10; Titus3:4–7) “salvation” is clearly a summary term forthe totality of what God has done for his people in and throughChrist. Salvation is such a rich and multifaceted work of God that ittakes a variety of terms to bring out its fullness. “Regeneration”refers to the new life that God imparts, bringing a person fromspiritual death to spiritual life (John 3:3–8; Eph. 2:4–7;Titus 3:4–7). “Justification” speaks of Goddeclaring a person not guilty in his court of law on the basis ofChrist’s sacrificial death and life of perfect obedience (Rom.3:21–5:12; Gal. 2:14–21). “Atonement”describes Christ’s payment for sin and resulting forgiveness(Rom. 3:21–26; Heb. 2:17). “Redemption” capturesthe reality of God paying the price to bring his people out of theirslavery to sin and into the freedom of the Spirit (Gal. 4:1–7;5:1). “Reconciliation” refers to God turning hardenedrebels and enemies into his friends (Rom. 5:10–11; 2Cor.5:18–21; Col. 1:20–22). “Adoption” extendsthat reality into the astonishing truth that God makes those whom hereconciles not just his friends but his sons and daughters (Rom.8:14–25; Gal. 4:1–7). In “sanctification” Godsets his people apart for his special purposes and progressivelychanges them into the image of Christ (1Cor. 1:30 ESV, NRSV,NASB; cf. Rom. 8:29). The final component is “glorification,”when God brings to completion the work of salvation by granting hispeople resurrection bodies, removing every last stain of sin, death,and the curse and placing them in a new heaven and earth (Rom. 8:30;1Cor. 15:35–57; Rev. 21–22).

Prepositionsof Salvation

Anotherway that the Bible fills out the nature of salvation is through thevarious prepositions connected to it. The prepositions in thefollowing list are among the more significant.

From.Since the basic idea of salvation is rescue from danger, it is notsurprising that Scripture describes that from which believers aresaved. David cries out to God, “Save me from all mytransgressions” (Ps. 39:8). Salvation from sin is possible onlythrough Jesus, for it is he who “will save his people fromtheir sins” (Matt. 1:21). Reflecting on the work of Jesus onthe cross, Paul claims that because of the sacrificial death ofChrist believers are saved from God’s wrath (Rom. 5:9–10).At the same time, the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus savedpeople from their slavery to sin (Rom. 6:1–11). As a result ofthese and other things from which Christ has saved people, on the dayof Pentecost Peter exhorts his audience to be saved “from thiscorrupt generation” (Acts 2:40). Thus, the unanimous testimonyof Scripture is that believers have been saved from their sin and itsconsequences.

To/into.Believers are saved not merely from something; they are saved to/intocertain states or conditions. Whereas they were once slaves,believers have now been saved “into the freedom and glory ofthe children of God” (Rom. 8:21 [cf. Gal. 5:1]). Through thecross God “has rescued us from the dominion of darkness andbrought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves” (Col. 1:13).Another way of stating this reality is to speak of the peace intowhich believers now have been brought as a result of Christ’swork on their behalf (John 14:27).

By.Scripture frequently uses the preposition “by” to expressthe instrument of salvation. Stated negatively, “It is not bysword or spear that the Lord saves” (1Sam. 17:47). In thebroadest sense, believers are saved from their sins by the gospel(1Cor. 15:1–2). More specifically, salvation is by thegrace of God (Eph. 2:5, 8). The preposition “by” can alsoexpress the agent of salvation. A distinguishing feature of Israelwas that it was saved from its enemies by God (Deut. 33:29; Isa.45:17). The same thing is meant when Scripture speaks of God savinghis people by his right hand (Ps. 17:7) or his name (Ps. 54:1).

Through.The consistent testimony of the Bible is that salvation comes throughfaith (e.g., Eph. 2:8–9). Through faith, believers have beenjustified (Rom. 3:22; 5:1–2) and made children of God (Gal.3:26). It is not righteousness based on the law that matters, “butthat which is through faith in Christ” (Phil. 3:9). Theremarkable actions of God’s people throughout history have beenaccomplished through faith (Heb. 11:1–40).

In.Especially in Paul’s writings the various components ofsalvation (see above) are modified with the phrase “in Christ”or “in him.” Believers are chosen (Eph. 1:4), redeemed(Eph. 1:7), justified (Gal. 2:17), and sanctified (1Cor. 1:2)in Christ. Indeed, God has blessed believers “in the heavenlyrealms with every spiritual blessing in Christ” (Eph. 1:3).

With.Many of the components of salvation that believers experience aresaid to happen “with Christ.” Believers are united withChrist in his death, burial, and resurrection (Rom. 6:4–11;Gal. 2:20). With Christ, believers have been made alive, raised up,and seated in the heavenly realms (Eph. 2:4–6; Col. 2:13).Because of their union with Christ, believers share in hisinheritance (Rom. 8:16–17; Gal. 3:29; 1Pet. 1:4). Eventhe very life of the believer is said to be currently “hiddenwith Christ in God” (Col. 3:3).

Tensesof Salvation

TheBible speaks of salvation in the past, present, and future tenses.Pointing to a definitive experience in the past, Paul tells believersthat “in this hope we were saved” (Rom. 8:24). Yet he canalso speak of himself and other believers as those “who arebeing saved” (1Cor. 1:18; 2Cor. 2:15), pointing toa process that is ongoing. Just a few sentences after assuringbelievers that they have been justified already (Rom. 5:1–2),he can still say that believers will “be saved from God’swrath” through Christ (Rom. 5:9–10).

Theuse of these three tenses reflects the “already and not yet”dynamic of salvation. Through the obedience, death, resurrection, andascension of Jesus, God has rescued his people from their sins. Butthe final and complete realization of all the benefits of salvationmust still await the return of Christ and the establishment of a newheaven and earth (Rev. 19–22).

Conclusion

Withouta proper understanding of humankind’s plight as a result of itsrebellion, the Bible’s repeated emphasis on salvation makeslittle sense. Because sin is humanity’s greatest problem,salvation is humanity’s greatest need. Given the breadth,width, and depth of what God has done to save his people from theirsins through Jesus Christ, it is no wonder that the author of Hebrewsasks, “How shall we escape if we ignore so great a salvation?”(2:3).

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color,but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes,and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can bedescribed as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored”(Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicatechanges or variety of color.

Certaincolors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while othersoccur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange),reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient NearEast. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxuryitems indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly andheavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are notusually described in terms of the colors of their appearance.Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam.17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

Thefollowing colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning inthe Bible:

White.Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), whitemuch more commonly has a positive association, being the color ofpurity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev.1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wearwhite robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black.The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair ofher beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have lesspositive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseasedskin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod.10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red.Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color ofblood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, andminerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, andcrimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animalskins were included in the offerings made for the construction of thetabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa.1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue.Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’scommandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors wereblue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments wereworn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple.Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign ofwealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kingsof Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage ofKing Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonianking Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan.5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in amockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue,purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth andpower, but when used together these three colors were the epitome ofopulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. Thetabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn(Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33).The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron.3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark ofthe Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiahdescribes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to concealtheir worthlessness (10:9).

Gray.Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green.Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-givingfood and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given byGod for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was adevastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). Peoplecould be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful andblessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed(2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

A form of government that acknowledges God’s kingship.God functions as the ultimate king in every era of biblical history,regardless of the form of human government.

Inthe book of Deuteronomy, theocracy is indicated in affirmations thatYahweh is Israel’s commander in chief. Yahweh goes before hispeople and fights battles on their behalf (1:30, 33; 3:22; 7:1,22–24; 9:3–5; 11:23). An important passage thatanticipates the monarchy prescribes that God chooses the human king(17:15). That king should neither turn the people back to Egypt noramass horses, wives, or riches (17:16–17). Rather, the king isto keep God’s law with him and must “read it all the daysof his life so that he may learn to revere the Lord his God andfollow carefully all the words of this law ... and notconsider himself better than his fellow Israelites” (17:19–20).

Thebook of Judges recounts a series of leaders who fail to uphold thetheocratic ideal of Deuteronomy. Both the tribes and leadersrepeatedly “did evil in the eyes of the Lord” (2:11; 3:7,12; 4:1; 6:1; 10:6; 13:1). The closing chapters of Judges state, “Inthose days Israel had no king; everyone did as they saw fit”(17:6; 21:25; cf. 18:1; 19:1). These refrains show that Israel needsa human king who will help the people to do what is right (ratherthan evil) “in the eyes of the Lord.” Israel mustmaintain theocracy if it is to avoid foreign oppression.

Thesame issue is at stake in the account of Saul’s rise tokingship. The Israelites’ request for a king is problematic notonly because they desired to be like “all the other nations,”but also because they desired a human king who would go before themand fight their battles (1Sam. 8:5, 20). By asking for a kingwho would serve in the role of commander in chief, they effectivelysupplant Yahweh and reject theocracy (1Sam. 8:7; 10:19; 12:12).In keeping with Deuteronomy, Samuel explains that both king andpeople are to fear, serve, and obey Yahweh if they are to experienceblessing (1Sam. 12:14–15, 25; cf. Deut. 17:19–20).Since Saul has failed to uphold theocracy, God rejects him as king(1Sam. 13:14; 15:11, 23, 26–28, 35) and seeks out a manwho meets his own criteria for kingship (13:14; cf. 15:28). ThatDavid has a proper perspective on God’s authority is evident instatements such as “the battle is the Lord’s”(1Sam. 17:47). David especially acknowledges God’skingship by installing the ark in Jerusalem and desiring to build thetemple (2Sam. 6–7), actions that lead to the Davidiccovenant (7:4–17).

TheDavidic covenant is foundational for a biblical theology of God’skingdom. Numerous psalms are devoted to God’s kingship (Pss. 2;20; 21; 47; 93; 145), and eschatological prophecies reveal much aboutthe messianic king/kingdom (Isa. 9; 11; Jer. 23; 30; 33; Ezek. 37;Dan. 2; 7; 9; Mic. 5; Zech. 9; 14). The NT shows that God’skingdom has arrived in part at the first coming of Jesus but awaitsits full consummation at his second coming (Matt. 3:17; 12:28; Mark1:14–15; Luke 17:20–21; Acts 1:6–8).

Hostile action carried out against someone or something.While used in Ezek. 22:26 to describe the manner in which Israel’spriests had utilized God’s law, violence most often involvesthe infliction of physical harm against a person or group. Thesubject of violence in the Bible, while extensive, is far fromsimple. Many OT passages refer to participation in violence assomething to be avoided, belonging to the life of the wicked ratherthan to that of the righteous (Ps. 27:12; Prov. 4:17). In the NT,violence is discouraged as well (Rom. 12:19–21). Violence isaddictive and ultimately destructive for those who live by it (Prov.13:2; 21:7). Violence begets violence (Ps. 137; Matt. 26:52). Arecurring biblical depiction of violence entails the spilling ofblood, due to a close association of blood with life (Jer. 51:35; cf.Lev. 17:14).

Manypassages assert or assume that God disapproves of violence (e.g., Job16:17; Ps. 17:4; Mal. 2:16; 1Tim. 1:13; Titus 1:7). God is arefuge against violence (2Sam. 22:3). Widespread violence onthe earth is the reason God gives for bringing about the flood (Gen.6:13). Violence is the sin of Nineveh (Jon. 3:8) as well as that ofIsrael, a point emphasized by the prophets when declaring that Israelwould go into exile (Isa. 53:9; Jer. 22:3; Ezek. 8:17; Hos. 12:1).

Yetthere are also passages that tolerate and even advocate violence.Scripture contains numerous stories of God’s people actingviolently. While in some cases these individuals may be acting ontheir own (see Judges), in some passages God explicitly commandsviolence (e.g., Deut. 7:1–2). In biblical military life,violence seems to be an accepted and even useful tool (e.g., 1Sam.17; 1Chron. 12). God is often described as, among other things,a warrior (Exod. 15:3; Matt. 10:34; Rev. 19:11–16).

Thequestion of the persistence of violence is voiced in Scripture butnot answered (Hab. 1:2–3), suggesting that there is no simpleanswer. Perhaps God’s recognition of the wickedness of thehuman heart (Gen. 8:21) leads him to be involved even in the violenceof this world, as instigator and also as recipient (Jesus). That theBible acknowledges the prevalence of violence in the world certainlyis significant. Yet the Bible also bears witness that this too shallpass as it describes God’s future plans, in which violence willbe no more (see Isa. 60:18).

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).